Describe the function of enzymes in the digestion of food. Describe the chemical composition of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Describe the chemical tests performed on food and explain the results.

/in /by

Lab 11

Overview
Biological macromolecules are large, complex organic molecules that are synthesized and used by living organisms. These biological macromolecules can be divided into four categories: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Food consists of these molecules. Biological macromolecules cannot pass through the intestinal wall unless they are converted to smaller molecules by digestive enzymes. In this investigation, you will perform standard chemical tests for carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids. Then you will model enzymatic digestion of protein and starch under conditions simulating the stomach and intestines. The effects of temperature and pH on enzymatic activity will also be tested.

Outcomes
• Describe the function of enzymes in the digestion of food.
• Describe the chemical composition of carbohydrates, proteins, and lipids.
• Describe the chemical tests performed on food and explain the results.
• Model the gastric digestion of protein and evaluate the effect of pH on the process.
• Model the salivary digestion of starch.

Describe the controls used in the starch test (Activity 1). In the quick test for fats (Activity 3), is there a relationship between the size of the spot and the fat content of the food? Explain your answer. In which test tube(s) did protein digestion occur (Activity 4)? How do you know?

/in /by

Biological Macromolecules and Enzymes

Data

Activity 1

Data Table 1

Test Tube ID Observations
Test tube 1

Water + iodine potassium iodide

  
Test tube 2

Water + potato starch + iodine potassium iodide

  
Test tube 3

Water + albumin solution + iodine potassium iodide

  

 

  1. Describe the controls used in the starch test (Activity 1).
Activity 2

Data Table 2

Test Tube ID Observations
Test tube 1

Water + Biuret reagent

  
Test tube 2

Water + albumin solution + Biuret reagent

  
Test tube 3

Water + potato starch solution + Biuret reagent

  
Activity 3

Data Table 3

Test Tube ID Observation
Water

 

  
Vegetable or olive oil

 

  
Vinegar

 

  
Salad dressing

 

  
Mustard or ketchup  
Unknown A  
Unknown B  
Unknown C  

 

  1. In the quick test for fats (Activity 3), is there a relationship between the size of the spot and the fat content of the food? Explain your answer.
Activity 4

Data Table 4

Test Tube ID Observation
Test tube 1a

Albumin + pepsin + HCl + Biuret reagent before incubation

  
Test tube 2a

Albumin + pepsin + water + Biuret reagent before incubation

  
Test tube 1b

Albumin + pepsin + HCl + Biuret reagent after incubation

  
Test tube 2b

Albumin + pepsin + water + Biuret reagent after incubation

  

 

  1. In which test tube(s) did protein digestion occur (Activity 4)? How do you know?
Activity 5

Data Table 5

Cup ID Observations
Cup 1

Cracker + distilled water + iodine-potassium iodide

  
Cup 2

Cracker + saliva + iodine-potassium iodide

  

 

  1. What do you think would happen if the saliva treatment of the starch (cracker) was conducted under very cold conditions? Very hot conditions?

 Photos

Photo 1

Insert the photo from Activity 1, step 5. The following should be indicated in this photo:

  • Test Tube 1 – water
  • Test Tube 2 – starch
  • Test Tube 3 – albumin

 Photo 2

Insert the photo from Activity 1, step 5 for your additional food samples. Indicate which food is in which test tube.

Photo 3

Insert the photo from Activity 1, step 5. The following should be indicated in this photo:

  • Test Tube 1 – water
  • Test Tube 2 – albumin
  • Test Tube 3 – starch

 Photo 4

Insert the photo from Activity 2, step 5 for your additional food samples. Indicate which food is in which test tube.

 Photo 5

Insert the photo from Activity 3, step 8 of your group of fat test samples. Indicate which spot is for which food.

 Photo 6

Insert the photo from Activity 4, step 6, The following should be indicated in this photo:

  • Test Tube 1a
  • Test Tube 1b
  • Test Tube 2a
  • Test Tube 2b

 Photo 7

Insert the photo from Activity 4, step 11, The following should be indicated in this photo:

  • Test Tube 1a
  • Test Tube 1b
  • Test Tube 2a
  • Test Tube 2b

 Photos 8 & 9

Insert the photos from Activity 5, step 9. The following should be indicated in these photos:

  • Cup 1
  • Cup 2

Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L? Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

/in /by

Lab Experiment #2

NOTE – REPORT IS SUBMITTED AS ONE DOCUMENT WITH PHOTOS/GRAPHS AND QUESTIONS INSERTED

Purpose and Hypothesis

This section should be a concise summary of the lab (one paragraph with 3-5 sentences).

  • State the purpose, the main scientific ideas/concepts you are trying to learn about or prove/observe (in your own words).
  • State your hypothesis: focus on the science, NOT the learning objectives. This should be a prediction in the form of a clear, confident statement regarding what you would expect to happen in your experiment.
Pre‐Lab Questions (if shown in lab instructions document)

Most labs have pre‐lab questions associated with them. Please copy the questions into your report and answer them in complete sentences, explaining your answers. The example questions shown at the end of this document also apply to the pre‐lab questions.

Experiment/Activity #
Experiment

 This section should briefly summarize what you did. NOTE: This section is where you want to place your photos for your lab.

  • Data: Clearly present your data. Include data tables and graphs (if any were needed). While graphs may not be needed for every lab, data tables usually are. If you list numbers, make sure units are either with all the numbers or make sure the column label includes the appropriate unit associated with all the numbers in that column.
  • Observations: Write in past tense. Here you summarize any observations (visual, sound, sight, or smell) that you think are significant and could help you explain or support your results. The lab may or may not specifically direct you to make observations, however in either case you should include a few general observations from the experiment which are not directly reported in your data tables.
  • Do not copy the procedure from the lab manual or list the equipment and chemicals that were used.

Example Table

Step Substance Reagent Result Description
         
         
Calculations

This section needs to show calculations for any calculations that were needed in the lab.

  • You must show work for the calculations in the questions or you will not get credit for you answer.
Conclusion

This section should summarize in detail the main findings of the lab. Your conclusion should be one paragraph and on the order of 6-10 sentences. Summarize the main results and conclusions from the experiment and the main sources of error. You may also include what you learned in the experiment or any results that you found surprising. For example:

  • State how the results compared to expectations and why they did or did not match.
    • If the lab is qualitative (observations only), how did the results compare to logical scientific expectations? It is NOT sufficient to say “the results of this lab were what I expected”. You need to say what you expected scientifically and why. Then say why your results matched or did not. If you do not know the value or expectations, look them up and then reference them as you discuss how your results compare.
  • State ways to minimize error if the experiment could be repeated. This information needs to be in the conclusion section. You need specific examples for this. It is NOT ok to say “The error could be improved by having better equipment.” Be specific.
  • State at least three sources of error in the lab.
    • Sources of error do NOT include errors in calculations. Do not say “human error”.
    • Error is classified as random or systematic, with explanations.
    • Find things within the lab that you could not control this time, but that you might be able to control if you could repeat the experiment under different conditions or with better equipment. Do not list things like not reading the directions, not cleaning glassware, or just being careless.

For this section it is helpful to think of the assumptions that were made in the lab and how your data would be affected if those assumptions were not completely true.

 

Answer to Questions

Depending on the lab, there might be both Pre and Post lab questions along with Activity questions, which will all be found in the Lab Questions document. All of these questions must be answered for full credit on the lab report.

Be sure to completely answer and explain all the questions and include complete calculations for any questions that require calculations. Please feel free to ask questions in our discussion forums as you work through them.

Examples:

1.  Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L?

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

2.  Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

References

You need to include, at minimum, one reference. Be sure to reference all information that you use to write you report, including any web resources or your text book.  All sources should be cited using APA guidelines.

Students are required to include citations for a couple of reasons. First, include references for the lab manual because the class is following procedures and using materials from the lab vendor. If a person reads a lab, but isn’t already familiar with the procedure, they will have a difficult time understanding what was done. Including a reference at the end of the document provides a pathway for someone to look up the original procedures to help them understand the results. Another point in including references is to practice writing proper citations according to APA guidelines http://ccconline.libguides.com/APAtoolkit. See the report rubric for more information.

 

Describe the basic structure of DNA and RNA. Design a simulation of a model showing the replication of DNA and RNA. Create models in a simulation demonstrating transcription and translation. Identify causes of genetic mutations and their effect on protein synthesis.

/in /by

Lab 12

DNA REPLICATION, RNA TRANSCRIPTION, AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

Overview
In this laboratory investigation, students explore the basic structure of deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) molecules as the process of DNA replication is modeled. The sequential processing of genetic information via transcription, translation, and protein synthesis is then explored.
Finally, students examine the process by which mutations to the genetic code occur and their consequences.

Outcomes
• Describe the basic structure of DNA and RNA.
• Design a simulation of a model showing the replication of DNA and RNA.
• Create models in a simulation demonstrating transcription and translation.
• Identify causes of genetic mutations and their effect on protein synthesis.

Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L? Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

/in /by

Lab Experiment #2

NOTE – REPORT IS SUBMITTED AS ONE DOCUMENT WITH PHOTOS/GRAPHS AND QUESTIONS INSERTED

Experiment/Activity #

Data

 Clearly present your data. Include data tables and graphs (if any were needed). While graphs may not be needed for every lab, data tables usually are. If you list numbers, make sure the column label includes the appropriate unit associated with all the numbers in that column.

Example Table

Step Substance Reagent Result Description
         
         

 

Calculations

This section needs to show calculations for any calculations that were needed in regarding your data.

  • You must show work for the calculations in the questions or you will not get credit for you answer.
Conclusion

This section should summarize in detail the main findings of the lab. Your conclusion should be one paragraph and on the order of 4 – 5 sentences. Summarize the main results and conclusions from the experiment and the main sources of error. You may also include what you learned in the experiment or any results that you found surprising. For example:

  • State at least three sources of error in the lab.
    • Sources of error do NOT include errors in calculations. Do not say “human error”.
    • Error is classified as random or systematic, with explanations.
    • Find things within the lab that you could not control this time, but that you might be able to control if you could repeat the experiment under different conditions or with better equipment. Do not list things like not reading the directions, not cleaning glassware, or just being careless.

For this section it is helpful to think of the assumptions that were made in the lab and how your data would be affected if those assumptions were not completely true.

 

Answer to Questions

Depending on the lab, there might be both Pre and Post lab questions along with Activity questions, which will all be found in the Lab Questions document. All of these questions must be answered for full credit on the lab report.

Be sure to completely answer and explain all the questions and include complete calculations for any questions that require calculations. Please feel free to ask questions in our discussion forums as you work through them.

Examples:

 

1.  Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L?

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

 

2.  Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

References

You need to include, at minimum, one reference. Be sure to reference all information that you use to write you report, including any web resources or your text book.  All sources should be cited using APA guidelines.

Students are required to include citations for a couple of reasons. First, include references for the lab manual because the class is following procedures and using materials from the lab vendor. If a person reads a lab, but isn’t already familiar with the procedure, they will have a difficult time understanding what was done. Including a reference at the end of the document provides a pathway for someone to look up the original procedures to help them understand the results. Another point in including references is to practice writing proper citations according to APA guidelines http://ccconline.libguides.com/APAtoolkit. See the report rubric for more information.

 

In order for a protein to be exported out of the cell, the head needs to be hydrophobic. Design a protein with a hydrophobic head of at least four amino acids. Take pictures of the screen in the simulation of the protein you have designed and insert them on the lab manual template. Why does the protein product stay the same after some point mutations, but change after others?

/in /by

DNA Replication, RNA Transcription, and Protein Synthesis Dry Lab

Activity 2

 Write down the mRNA sequence for:

 

  1. met-ser-leu-gly-trp-stop

 

met ser leu gly trp stop
           

 

  1. met-ser-pro-cys-his-stop

 

met ser pro cys his stop
           

 

  1. met-ile-asn-ala-tyr-stop

 

met ile asn ala tyr stop
           

 

  1. met-gln-thr-leu-arg-cys-pro-lys-stop

 

met gln thr leu arg cys pro lys stop
                 

 

  1. start-ile-glu-asp-ser-his-trp-stop

 

start ile glu asp ser his trp stop
               

 

  1. start-leu-pro-gln-tyr-ile-met-val-ala-stop

 

start leu pro gln tyr ile met val ala stop
                   

 

  1. start-ala-glu-trp-ser-phe-pro-ser-gly-thr-stop

 

start ala glu trp ser phe pro ser gly thr stop
                     

 

  1. start-val-ala-thr-thr-leu-tyr-cys-gly-arg-stop

 

start val ala thr thr leu tyr cys gly arg stop
                     

 

  1. start-lys-asn-gly-phe-his-thr-arg-pro-gln-stop

 

start lys asn gly phe his thr arg pro gln stop
                     

 

  1. start-met-thr-asn-lys-pro-gln-ser-leu-arg-stop

 

start met thr asn lys pro gln ser leu arg stop
                     

Activity 3

Step 1, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 2, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 3, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 4, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 5, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 6, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 7, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 8, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 9, insert picture and explain the results.

Step 10, insert picture and explain the results.

 

Activity 4

Simulate 3 different point mutations, 3 different insertion mutations, and 3 different deletion mutations starting from the original sequence of amino acids and explain why the protein product stays the same after some point mutations, but changes after others. Take pictures of the screen for all nine mutations and insert them below. Describe the mutation and explain the effect on the peptide.

  • Point mutation 1
  • Point mutation 2
  • Point mutation 3
  • Insertion mutation 1
  • Insertion mutation 2
  • Insertion mutation 3
  • Deletion mutation 1
  • Deletion mutation 2
  • Deletion mutation 3

 

Activity 5

Step 1: Design a protein product that consists of mainly hydrophilic amino acids. Take pictures of the screen and insert them on the lab manual template.

 

Step 2: In order for a protein to be exported out of the cell, the head needs to be hydrophobic. Design a protein with a hydrophobic head of at least four amino acids. Take pictures of the screen in the simulation of the protein you have designed and insert them on the lab manual template.

  • Why does the protein product stay the same after some point mutations, but change after others?

Summarize the difference between the function of insulin and glucagon. Define hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia and explain the consequences of each. Search the internet and discover how too much sugar in your bloodstream has adverse effects on your eyes, nerves and kidneys. Be sure to cite a reference. Explain in your own words the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes. How might CRISPR be useful in curing diabetes?

/in /by

Diabetes

The topic for Module 5 is the chemistry of energy for living cells. The energy for cells ultimately comes from glucose, and diabetes is a disease that affects the metabolism of glucose.

An immense amount of research has been dedicated to metabolic pathways, which have resulted in a better understanding of diabetes and led to therapies to help correct this disorder. Watch the following two videos and follow the Instructions below.
● Insulin and glycagon
● Glucose insulin and diabetes

Instructions
1. Summarize the difference between the function of insulin and glucagon.
2. Define hyperglycemia and hypoglycemia and explain the consequences of each. Search the internet and discover how too much sugar in your bloodstream has adverse effects on your eyes,
nerves and kidneys. Be sure to cite a reference.
3. Explain in your own words the difference between Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes.
4. How might CRISPR be useful in curing diabetes?

Does your prepared soap contain excess sodium hydroxide? How can you tell? Does your household soap sample contain excess sodium hydroxide? How can you tell?

/in /by

Saponification of Fatty Acids

Lab 9/Lab report #7

Purpose/Hypothesis:

Experiment/Data

Briefly Summarize the procedure

Activities 1 and 2

Data Table

  Prepared soap sample Household soap sample
pH of sample 6 (mostly yellow-orange) 8 (green/somewhat turquoise)
Initial observation of foam layer 1/3  roughly is made of white foam present Mostly white foam present
Oil test observation  Slight amount of white foam present Lots of white foam about half of test tube
Hard water test observation Small amount of frothy white foam present Less white foam but still about 1/3 of test tube foam present

Observations:

Photos

Photo 1

Activity 2, step 8.

Photo 2

Activity 2, step 10.

Photo 3

Insert the photo of the foam layer produced by Activity 2, step 16.

Calculations:

Conclusion:

 

Post Lab Questions:

  1. Does your prepared soap contain excess sodium hydroxide? How can you tell?
  1. Does your household soap sample contain excess sodium hydroxide? How can you tell?

 

 

Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L? Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

/in /by

Lab Experiment #2

NOTE – REPORT IS SUBMITTED AS ONE DOCUMENT WITH PHOTOS/GRAPHS AND QUESTIONS INSERTED

Purpose and Hypothesis

This section should be a concise summary of the lab (one paragraph with 3-5 sentences).

  • State the purpose, the main scientific ideas/concepts you are trying to learn about or prove/observe (in your own words).
  • State your hypothesis: focus on the science, NOT the learning objectives. This should be a prediction in the form of a clear, confident statement regarding what you would expect to happen in your experiment.

Pre‐Lab Questions (if shown in lab instructions document)

Most labs have pre‐lab questions associated with them. Please copy the questions into your report and answer them in complete sentences, explaining your answers. The example questions shown at the end of this document also apply to the pre‐lab questions.

Experiment/Activity #

Experiment

This section should briefly summarize what you did. NOTE: This section is where you want to place your photos for your lab.

  • Data: Clearly present your data. Include data tables and graphs (if any were needed). While graphs may not be needed for every lab, data tables usually are. If you list numbers, make sure units are either with all the numbers or make sure the column label includes the appropriate unit associated with all the numbers in that column.
  • Observations: Write in past tense. Here you summarize any observations (visual, sound, sight, or smell) that you think are significant and could help you explain or support your results. The lab may or may not specifically direct you to make observations, however in either case you should include a few general observations from the experiment which are not directly reported in your data tables.
  • Do not copy the procedure from the lab manual or list the equipment and chemicals that were used.

Example Table

Step Substance Reagent Result Description
         
         

Calculations

This section needs to show calculations for any calculations that were needed in the lab.

  • You must show work for the calculations in the questions or you will not get credit for you answer.

Conclusion

This section should summarize in detail the main findings of the lab. Your conclusion should be one paragraph and on the order of 6-10 sentences. Summarize the main results and conclusions from the experiment and the main sources of error. You may also include what you learned in the experiment or any results that you found surprising. For example:

  • State how the results compared to expectations and why they did or did not match.
    • If the lab is qualitative (observations only), how did the results compare to logical scientific expectations? It is NOT sufficient to say “the results of this lab were what I expected”. You need to say what you expected scientifically and why. Then say why your results matched or did not. If you do not know the value or expectations, look them up and then reference them as you discuss how your results compare.
  • State ways to minimize error if the experiment could be repeated. This information needs to be in the conclusion section. You need specific examples for this. It is NOT ok to say “The error could be improved by having better equipment.” Be specific.
  • State at least three sources of error in the lab.
    • Sources of error do NOT include errors in calculations. Do not say “human error”.
    • Error is classified as random or systematic, with explanations.
    • Find things within the lab that you could not control this time, but that you might be able to control if you could repeat the experiment under different conditions or with better equipment. Do not list things like not reading the directions, not cleaning glassware, or just being careless.

For this section it is helpful to think of the assumptions that were made in the lab and how your data would be affected if those assumptions were not completely true.

Answer to Questions

Depending on the lab, there might be both Pre and Post lab questions along with Activity questions, which will all be found in the Lab Questions document. All of these questions must be answered for full credit on the lab report.

Be sure to completely answer and explain all the questions and include complete calculations for any questions that require calculations. Feel free to ask questions in our discussion forums as you work through them.

Examples:

1.  Which of the group I chlorides has the lowest molar solubility? What is its solubility in moles/L?

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

 

2.  Could you foresee difficulty in quantitative analysis of your unknown ion in aqueous solution or ions by weighing the precipitate? Explain why or why not in quantitative terms.

 Answer this fully and give your reasoning/explanation for your answer

References

You need to include, at minimum, one reference. Be sure to reference all information that you use to write you report, including any web resources or your text book.  All sources should be cited using APA guidelines.

Students are required to include citations for a couple of reasons. First, include references for the lab manual because the class is following procedures and using materials from the lab vendor. If a person reads a lab, but isn’t already familiar with the procedure, they will have a difficult time understanding what was done. Including a reference at the end of the document provides a pathway for someone to look up the original procedures to help them understand the results. Another point in including references is to practice writing proper citations according to APA guidelines http://ccconline.libguides.com/APAtoolkit. See the report rubric for more information.

 

In the structure shown above, (a) how many amides are there? (b) amines? (c) carboxylic acids (d) and phenols? Referring back to the Project from Module 3, what IR bands would you expect to be prominent in an IR spectrum of the chromophore shown above? How are the proteins sorted on the column showed in the second video?

/in /by

Module 4 Project

Overview

You will explore the use of Green Fluorescent Proteins (GFP), their structure, reactivity, purification, and identification. Green Fluorescent Proteins were first found naturally occurring in jellyfish by Japanese scientists decades ago as the compound that gave the jellyfish their bioluminescence. Since the discovery, scientists have isolated the protein and used it to see inside the cell of whatever they are studying easily. Just shining ultraviolet light on a cell containing GFP makes it light up green. There have since been many uses for GFP in biological research, including other derivatives of the protein that emit different wavelengths of light.

  • View this brief introduction to GFP (you can focus just on the first 2 minutes as the rest get into some more details of GFP derivatives).
  • Watch this video showing chromatography being used to purify bacteria and collect the GFP protein.

INTRODUCTION

In a Word document, first create a separate Title Page that contains the name of the project, along with your name and the date. Then, answer the questions below:

  1. The chromophore of GFP is what gives off the bright light. In the structure shown below, circle 1 amide, 1 amine, 1 carboxylic acid, and 1 alcohol.
  2. In the structure shown above, (a) how many amides are there? (b) amines? (c) carboxylic acids (d) and phenols?
  3. Referring back to the Project from Module 3, what IR bands would you expect to be prominent in an IR spectrum of the chromophore shown above?
  4. How are the proteins sorted on the column showed in the second video?
  5. Compare and contrast the chromatography method described above for GFP to the ones you used and the one you wrote about in your project for Module 2. (100-200 words)
  6. Referring back to Module 1, circle on the molecule shown below the area of the molecule that is aromatic and has conjugation. NOTE: You can either print or draw the molecule and then show your work for this question. All drawings should be signed and dated.