Do stratigraphic sequences separated by unconformities contain different structures? Are there any major structures that are difficult to interpret or any that you have inferred on your fair copy map or cross-sections? Discuss how the different large scale structures may have evolved and possible alternatives.

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Geological Field Mapping Report

The report should be laid out in the following manner:

Abstract
The abstract should identify the location and geological setting of your area, the ages of the rocks, the geological observations, their interpretation, and your main conclusions.

Introduction
The introduction should introduce the geographical setting, location, topography, drainage and climate of the mapped area. The introduction should include a brief account of the regional geological setting of the area mapped and may include comment on the terrain and the amount of exposure. The report is not intended to give a review of the history of geological research in the area and reference to previous work should be kept to the minimum necessary. A location map is necessary. You must also discuss the findings of your remote sensing study here. This could be based on an A4 version of your basemap, aerial photographs or Google Earth image with an overlay or annotations.

Lithological Descriptions / Stratigraphy of the Area
You should systematically describe each of your mapping units in turn, starting with the oldest, using correct stratigraphic nomenclature. The stratigraphy should include a description of the principal features of each mapped formation and the nature of the boundaries between each unit. Correlations with any previously established stratigraphy should be noted. Clearly state how your stratigraphy is divided into formations. You might be using the same as outlined by the literature because they are appropriate subdivisions for your area, but you may choose to merge two units into one if they are not clear to distringuish or too small to map individually. Ensure that you separate clearly your own observations and conclusions from information derived from the literature. This section should be clearly linked to your stratigraphic column.Describe the nature of the contacts with preceding and succeeding units if this information is available. Describe the lithologies which comprise each unit, including description of thin sections, fossils, and
any sedimentary structures (note that sedimentary structures are described here, not in the structural section, even though they are sometimes used for structural purposes such as determination of way– up). State the thickness of the unit and the evidence upon which your estimate is based and discuss any lateral variations in thickness. Discuss how you reached your estimate of thicknesses of sedimentary sequences. Identify the fossils contained in the unit. Indicate the age of the formation, and if fossil and try to work out directions. Use information such as grain sizes, lithologies, sedimentary structures and fossils to determine the environment of deposition for each unit (i.e. establish whether the environment of deposition was a river, lake, beach, carbonate shelf and son on, stating what inforamtion your interpretation is based on). For metamorphic rocks what minerals may be used to indicate grade? Intrusive igneous rocks are usually described after all the other units have been described. Thin sections of representative rocks from each mapping area are available with mapping area supervisors. If you use photomicrographs of thin sections make sure that there are appropriate captions, a scale bar and adequate labelling of the features that you wish to draw attention to. After the data have been presented you should make a reasoned interpretation of the conditions in which the unit formed, such as sedimentary environment of deposition, environment of eruption of volcanic rocks, or conditions of metamorphism.

For correct stratigraphical procedure, you can refer to one of the following:
WHITTAKER, A. et al. 1991. A guide to stratigraphical procedure. Journal of the Geological Society of London 148, 813–
824.
RAWSON, P. F. et al. 2002. A guide to stratigraphical procedure. Geological Society of London, Professional Handbook.
HAILE, N. S. 1987. Time and age in geology: the use of Upper/Lower, late/early in stratigraphic nomenclature. Marine and Petroleum Geology 4, 255–257.

Structurql Interpretation of the Mapping Area
This section should give an account of the folds and faults in the area mapped. Diagrams are usually important and helpful here, and make the task of description easier. Illustrate and explain this section with annotated photographs, sketch cross–sections, stereograms and rose diagrams. An attempt should be made to determine the sequence of structural events that have affected the area. This section should be clearly linked to the cross–section(s) and a tectonic summary map. A tectonic sketch map ideally of A4 size, should show the location, distribution and relationships of tectonic elements such as fold axial traces and various kinds of faults. The scale of the tectonic sketch map required depends on the structural complexity of the area mapped. It could require a transparent overlay at the same scale as the fair copy map if the area is structurally complex although in most areas a sketch map as a full page diagram in the report may be sufficient. In more complex structural areas each tectonic block should be named and coloured differently as this will help to describe the sequence of events outlined below. If it is possible to determine the sequence in which the structures formed, discuss them in chronological order. Do stratigraphic sequences separated by unconformities contain different structures? Are there any major structures that are difficult to interpret or any that you have inferred on
your fair copy map or cross–sections? Discuss how the different large scale structures may have evolved and possible alternatives. If there are established structural models for your mapping region do not be afraid to challenge or be
critical of these and put forward your own interpretation as an alternative, particularly if the established interpretation does not fit with the structures and stratigraphy as you have mapped them. This is much better than presenting an existing model without any evidence or trying to force your observations to fit this. Remember that remote sensing images may be helpful in describing some of the structures so you should consider including annotated Google Earth or aerial photo images.

Recent Deposits
If significant areas of your map contain recent deposits then briefly outline where these can be found. These main include glacial deposits (including transported rafts of lithologies), landslides and olistostromes, and recent unconsolidated riverborne alluvial deposits and raised beaches.

Economic Potential
Consider if any of the lithologies in your mapping area have economic potential. This can range from uses for building stone, road stone or cement, to potential source, reservoir and trap rocks for hydrocarbons. If you have mineral veins or disseminations consider what elements they contain and if these have economic uses.

Discussion: Geological History of the Area
Having described the stratigraphic succession and the structures found in your area you can now consider the geological history of your mapping area as a whole. Your discussion should summarise the geological history of the area mapped, based on the evidence described and illustrated more completely in the earlier sections of the report, on the map, stratigraphic column and cross–sections. Start with the oldest events and review the history of sedimentation, metamorphism, igneous activity and deformation. For example, does the stratigraphic sequence indicate any changes in sea level or deposition in any particular tectonic environment? How does this relate to the structural evolution of
the area? As you describe the history of your own area from your own evidence you should also discuss your findings using the published literature about the area. Compare your own mapping units, formations and members with any published stratigraphy for your area. Do you disagree with the accepted wisdom, or is your story broadly consistent with other people’s ideas? How does your area fit in with the wider interpretation of the geological history of the region?

Conclusions
Briefly summarise your main findings and significance of your results. Any difficulties encountered in making your map, alternative interpretations and the reasons for choosing between them, should be mentioned here. Please do not include problems with your mapping partner or health–related extenuating circumstances here (these should be discussed with your supervisor and if you apply for an extension).

Bibliography
Any details or material from the literature which you use must be acknowledged in the text of your report, or in the captions of diagrams which you have modified from other publications. All references cited must be listed at the end of the report giving year of publication, journal, title, volume and page numbers, in the style of journals such as the Journal of the Geological Society. Make sure you list only references which are cited in the report. Do not list references which may have been read by you, or are known to you, but are not cited in the text.

Appendices
Do NOT use them. If material needs to be included in the report it should be properly incorporated at the appropriate place. Drawings, sketches, logs, maps, thin sections descriptions, and any other material which is used should be included as figures and plates, or incorporated in the report. Marks are not awarded for the amount of work done, but the way it is used and interpreted

Look at Geology of Wind Cave and learn more about Wind Cave National Park. Add to your study guide and submit to the discussion board. What did you find interesting about Wind Cave, either from the powerpoint or the Park Service website?

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Landforms

1. Take a look at the different parts of the state, watch the vidoes and explore areas that you may not be familiar with, and then explain what Georgia landform you enjoy or would like to visit and tell us a little bit about why you chose that landform fo discuss.

2. Add to your study guide (Pick TWO areas of the state from the site above to compare and write a brief comparison of how these regions are alike and different tectonically. Where do you see erosion and weathering? What impacts have wind and water had? Are the landforms similar or different

3. Look through the Landforms website and use it to fill out your study guide. Which landform do you find most interesting?

4. Look at Geology of Wind Cave and learn more about Wind Cave National Park. Add to your study guide and submit to the discussion board. What did you find interesting about Wind Cave, either from the powerpoint or the Park Service website?

5. Relative age is how scientists reconstruct what has happened and when in relation to other events.
Read about Relative Age..
Try the Relative Age Worksheet and submit answers to the dropbox.
How is relative age used to help determine what happened on earth long before recorded history? Why do we care?
Take a look at Karst Topography and what causes these types of landforms. Then investigate how surface water creates landforms and explore the processes involved in landform creation. explain sorting, sedimentation, watersheds, flood control, Mass Wasting and how it occurs, and the differences between chemical and physical weathering.

6. Take a look at the video landslide detectives, answer the questions below and use the resources in this lesson to complete your study guide. Submit your questions below to the dropbox.
Describe the differences between deep-seated and shallow landslides. • What are some dangers of landslides?
• How do landslides affect people?
• Why is it important that geologists like Professor Bill Dietrich and his team continue to study landslides?
• How should the issue of changing property lines be addressed in landslide-prone areas?

7. submit a comparison of landslides and avalanches using a venn diagram to the drop box. Choose Three points on how they are alike and Three points on how they are different. You may use the venn diagram template below or create your own.

According to this Population Growth Rate Map, in what areas of the world has the population been growing most rapidly? Why do you think this is?

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Population

Part 1 – Population Explosion
1. Look at the U.S. Census Bureau’s World Population Clock gives an up to the second estimate of the world population. By how much does the population grow in 1 minute? How many people is that per second? Per week?
2. Using the U.S. Census Bureau’s State and County Quick Facts, find the most recent population estimates for Georgia and Forsyth County. How does your county population compare to the number of people the world population grows by each week? Are you surprised by the results?
3. Look at this graph of Historical Estimates of World Population. In what year did the world population start to suddenly increase? What do you think might be the cause for this?
4. How might historical events or the quality of life during different historical periods have influenced population growth? Check the World HyperHistory site to see what may have influenced population growth during different periods in time. Focus on major historical events such as different Disease events and World Wars.
5. According to this Population Growth Rate Map, in what areas of the world has the population been growing most rapidly? Why do you think this is?

Part 2 – Factors in Population Growth
The natural increase of a population depends on the number of births and deaths. If the number of births is greater than the number of deaths at any given point in time there will be natural increase in the number of people. Typically, the growth rate of a population is given in terms of the birth rate (number of births per 1000 people per year) and death rate (number of deaths per 1000 people per year).

1.Write an equation that expresses the growth rate of a population in terms of the birth rate and death rate.

2.What circumstances might result in a high birth rate for a population? A low birth rate?

3.What circumstances might result a high death rate for a population? A low death rate?

4.Look at these charts of Birth and Death Rates. If both birth rates and death rates are declining worldwide, why is the world’s population still increasing? Based on this birth rate and death rate information, what could you say about the world’s growth rate in recent years?

5.There are many factors that contribute to birth rates and death rates. Fertility rates and life expectancy are just two examples. Fertility rate is the average number of children born to women in a given population. Look at the summary demographic data for the U.S. in this chart. From 2006-2017, what was the trend in the fertility rate among the groups of women for all age ranges? What does this mean for the number of births in the US?

6.Look at historical information for U.S. birth rates and fertility rates between 1920 and 1999.
How might fertility rate affect the birth rate? How might it ultimately affect the population growth rate?

Part 3 – Population Histograms
1. Look at the population histograms in the IDB Data Base for the U.S. For the 2000 histogram, compare the number of children, middle aged people and elderly people. Roughly, what shape does this histogram have (pyramid, inverted pyramid, square, hour-glass, other?) Based on this histogram, would you say the U.S. was experiencing a rapid growth, slow growth, no growth or negative growth in population? Why?
2. Now look at the year 2065. How do the number of children, middle aged people, and elderly people compare? What shape does this histogram have? By the year 2060 would you say the U.S. population would be experiencing a rapid growth, slow growth, no growth or negative growth in population? Why?

3. Based on these two histograms, what can you say about our nation’s population growth, currently and in the near future?

4. Go to IDB Summary Demographic Data. Choose “The World”. Select examples of five other countries whose populations are experiencing rapid growth, slow growth, no growth, and negative growth. Draw a sketch of each country’s population histogram (Scroll down to see it) and label each as rapid growth, slow growth, no growth or negative growth. Also be sure to name the country for each sketch.

5. How does a histogram’s shape help to display a country’s population growth? What shape would a population experiencing rapid growth have? Slow growth? No growth? Negative growth?

6. Look at this graph of World Population Growth. Is there any relationship between how industrially developed a country and the population growth of that country? Find examples of more developed countries and less developed countries that support or refute the information on this chart

Which solution was above the other? Why did the solutions seperate and not mix? How does this lab help to represent what happens in estuaries? How does this type of environment impact the organisms that live there (esturaries)?

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Estuary Salinity Lab

Place a few drops of red food coloring to a clear glass that contains cold water from your refrigerator (less than half full).
In a separate glass of the same type, make a saltwater solution using the same amount of water as you did in step 1. Heat that water in the microwave for1 1/2 minutes or until warm. Be careful not to burn yourself. Dissolve table salt into that warm water (mix a little at a time until it does not dissolve any further.) Then place a few drops of yellow food coloring to that solution. Mix well.
Now, slowly pour the red water solution (freshwater) into the saltwater solution (yellow solution). The slower you pour the red into the yellow the better your results will be. Hint: If you pour it so that the red solution moves down the side of the yellow container, slowly, you will recieve nice reults.
Do not stir or mix this combined solution. You should see a separation of the two solutions, even though they are in the same container.
In a word or google document, describe what you observed as you mixed these solutions and then continue to monitor the solution recording what you see happening each minute for 10 minutes. Make a data table of these observations.
Take pictures of the mixture immediately after mixing and then after 10 minutes. Place a copy of these pictures in your lab writeup and label the pictures.
Answer the following analysis questions.
Which solution was above the other?
Why did the solutions separate and not mix?
How does this lab help to represent what happens in estuaries?
How does this type of environment impact the organisms that live there (esturaries)?
What types of stress does this place on the organisms?

Estimate the average rate at which Neenach and Pinnacles have moved apart since 19 Myr. Estimated average rate of displacement since 19 Myr: km/Myr

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Lab 2 Tectonic Plates

Learning GOAL You will examine two points that were originally in the same place along the San Andreas Fault and measure how far they have moved apart. Using GPS velocity data, you will estimate how long it might have taken for this displacement to occur.
Displacement Along the San Andreas. The San Andreas Fault in California is an important part of the boundary between the Pacific Plate to the west and the North American Plate to the east. Between about 19.0 and 24.1 million years ago, a volcano erupted near the western margin of the North American Plate, and later that same volcano was split by a fault in the San Andreas Fault system. The displaced halves of that volcano now form the Pinnacles and Neenach Volcanics (Fig. A2.2.1). Pinnacles now moves with the Pacific Plate and Neenach remains on the deforming edge of the North American Plate,

1. Measure the distance between Neenach and Pinnacles along the San Andreas Fault. Because the fault is not a straight Line on the map, you might want to use a string in the measuring process. Carefully position the string along the curved trace of the fault. Mark the average positions of Neenach and Pinnacles on the string. Straighten the string along a ruler and measure the distance between the two points on the string in millimeters. Each millimeter on the map represents 4 Ion on Earth’s surface. Approximate distance from Neenach to Pinnacles: km

2. The age of the Neenach—Pinnacles Volcanics is between about 19.0 and 24.1 Myr. Based on your answer to the previous question and making the first-order assumption that faulting began soon after volcanism ceased (around 19.0 Myr), estimate the average rate at which Neenach and Pinnacles have moved apart since 19 Myr. Estimated average rate of displacement since 19 Myr: km/Myr

 

DISCUSS If you could have seen the landscape that existed in this part of Pennsylvania about 200 million years ago, what else would you have seen on the landscape besides valleys, streams, lakes, and fields?

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Lab 5 Ingneous Rocks and Processes

Learning GOAL You will examine a geologic map showing just 3 rock units of different ages and types, and make a reasonable geologic interpretation of the area based on an idealized example of a similar geological setting. Review Fig. 5.25. Then study the portion of a geologic map of Pennsylvania in Fig. A5.9.1. The green-colored areas are exposures of 200-220 million-year-old Mesozoic sand and mud that were deposited in lakes, streams, and fields of a long, narrow valley, The red-colored areas are bodies of basalt about 190 million years old. Paleozoic and Precambrian rocks are more than 252 million years old and colored pale brown.

0 5 10 15 20 km

York delphia gton

0 5 10 miles

Paleozoic rocks

• Reading

Mesozoic Rocks

Pottstown • 4L
IAA fi • Doylestovm

Mesozoic sedimentary rocks
Figure A5.9.1 •
Paleozoic rocks

A Based on their geometries (as viewed from above in map view), what kind of igneous bodies on the map are labeled A?

B Based on their geometries (as viewed from above in map view), what kind of igneous bodies on the map are labeled B (more than one answer is possible)?
C REFLECT & DISCUSS If you could have seen the landscape that existed in this part of Pennsylvania about 200 million years ago (when the bodies of igneous rock were lava), what else would you have seen on the landscape besides valleys, streams, lakes, and fields? Explain your reasoning.

What mineral defines the foliation in this rock? Notice that the rock consists mostly of fine-grained muscovite but also contains scattered garnet crystals. What is the name for this kind of texture?

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Lab 7 Metamorphic Rocks, Processes, and Resources

CDC Analyze the foliated metamorphic rock sample in Fig. A7.3.3.

Figure A7.3.3
Eflel Analyze the metamorphic rock sample in Fig. A7.3.4.

Figure A7.3.4
1. What mineral defines the foliation in this rock?
2. Notice that the rock consists mostly of fine-grained muscovite but also contains scattered garnet crystals. What is the name for this kind of texture?
3. What is the name of this metamorphic rock?

4. What type(s) of rock might have been the protolith for this rock?
1. Is this rock foliated or nonfoliated (g,ranofelsic)? What features in the photograph did you use to make your interpretation?
2. What is the name of this metamorphic rock?
3. What type(s) of rock might have been the protolith for this rock?
re REFLECT & DISCUSS Which one of the rocks in this activity do you think has the highest metamorphic grade? Explain your answer.

What are the challenges and benefits of applying dental microwear analysis to investigate archosaur diet

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Archosaur diet

What are the challenges and benefits of applying dental microwear analysis to investigate archosaur diet.

Need to produce a referenced essay discussing the pros and cons of using dental microwear analysis in the investigation of archosaur diet.

 

What is the angle between the two fractures? Along a vertical railway cutting, a bed has an apparent dip of 20° to 298°. If the bed strikes 067°, what is the true dip and dip direction?

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Stereonets

1. Plot the orientations of the following stretching lineations, and determine their plunge and plunge direction:
a. pitches 06° N on 351 °/37° E b. pitches 79° W on 285°/62° N c. pitches 42° N on 358°/86°E Also, plot the poles to the above planes on
your stereonet.
2. Two fractures have the following orientations: 067°/38° SE, and 291 °/76° SW.
What is the plunge and plunge direction of  the intersection of the two fractures?
What is the angle between the two fractures?
3. Along a vertical railway cutting, a bed has an apparent dip of 20° to 298°. If the bed strikes 067°, what is the true dip and dip direction?

Write an essay on what use in scientific procedures lithium isotopes are or can be used for as well as lithium deposits and the environmental impacts they have made or can make.

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lithium

Write an essay on what use in scientific procedures (i.e. measurements) lithium isotopes are or can be used for as well as lithium deposits (historic and/or current) and the environmental impacts/changes (both oceanic and lithic) they have made or can make.