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What are they like, what do they look like, what do they do?

Jaguar

Table of content

  1. Introduction
  2. Situational Environment

2.1 PEST-Analysis

2.2 Porter’s Five Forces

  1. Branding Strategy
  2. Brand Pyramid
    1. Features and Attributes
    2. Functional Benefits
    3. Emotional Benefits
    4. Brand Persona
    5. Brand Idea

Marketing Mix

Product

Price

Place

Promotion

  1.  Brand Communication in Different Markets

United States

Asia

  1. Conclusion
  2. References

Introduction

The same characteristics can be applied to Jaguar cars which are associated with wildness, risk and perfect innovative design. The history of Jaguar brand began almost 100 years ago in 1922 and at the beginning Jaguar cars were associated more with glam and style rather than performance and innovations. But this perception totally changed in 1930s when Jaguar launched the fastest car of that time with high performance and a sporty design. This car became an icon and the new era for Jaguar began.

Jaguar production facilities are situated in the West Midlands at Castle Bromwich and Solihull, UK. During the visit of these facilities it’s possible to witness sophisticated production process of these breath-taking cars and to know more about its branding strategy. Based on the experience received during such a visit and on the research conducted, Jaguar business environment, branding

strategy and the way the brand is communicated have been highlighted in the report below. Jaguar business environment has been analysed via PEST and Porter’s 5 Forces models.

The company branding strategy analysis includes brand pyramid and 4 P’s model. Moreover, the report includes the peculiarities of brand communication in different markets, i.e. United Kingdom, United States, Asian market and Brazil. Furthermore, a new advertising campaign for women has been created and presented in the report.

Pest Analysis

All of them are interconnected and should be considered in complex. For instance, the enforcement of new laws related to CO2 emission, which is a political factor, is going to affect the technological aspect such as sooner implementation of new ”green” technologies (VCA, no date). For Jaguar, it means that they should focus on quicker adding models with eco and hybrid-engines. The company has plans to present new hybrid models but there is no specific time frame at the moment.

On the other hand, the possibility of the UK to stop its EU membership can have a big effect on the company’s strategy and business plans (BBC NEWS, 2015). The reason is, that the political change will significantly strengthen the GBP. It will mean that attractiveness of Jaguar models can be under pressure comparing to its competitors. Moreover, in this case European brands such as Mercedes, Porsche can be in the position of advantage because of the weaker Euro currency.

There are some social shifts as well. For example, the ageing population of EU and alternative schemes of car ownerships (such as car by request, rental services expansion) mean that people are buying fewer cars (RAC Foundation, 2012). The impact is not so critical for Jaguar, as these cars are symbols of status and not just a way of transportation. It means that core key customers would still buy a car rather than use short rent services, which are usually concentrated in the economy niche.

However, Jaguar should find new ways of sales stimulation regarding the ageing population issue. As a plan to compensate for this drop, Jaguar is interested in younger audience, which means they should use the newest communication channels, such as social networks and online media, etc. Jaguar has done it by distributing new ad campaigns in the Internet along with shifting advertising focus to innovations and technologies. Both are the right ways to attract younger people.

In these terms, technological demands of younger people should be really heard by Jaguar engineers and managers. As the iPhone did a revolution in the mobile industry, it’s expected that driver-free technologies (and drive assistant, car communication systems) will reshape the car industry and create new challenges for conservative brands. Currently Apple has an interest to buy Tesla Cars to get full freedom to integrate their own iOS platform into the most successful eco-friendly car brand (Condron, 2015). The combination of the two technologies is able to become a significant value among the premium customers interested in innovations.

Jaguar should keep track on what’s going in the latest technologies in terms of any possible requirement of a quick strategy update. As a suggestion they need to have closer collaboration with mobile and software leading development companies to make sure they are integrating the latest solutions.

While innovation companies are trying to change the car industry, Jaguar has confident sales growth and markets expansion. They successfully predicted the trend of luxury SUVs by launching a new model in 2016 (Ingrham, 2015). Bentley, Rolls Royce also create their own SUV models, so it means competitors really see market expectations. It’s obvious already that premium SUVs are going to take a significant share of market.

This launch is a very positive turn in terms of market shares diversification. SUV models are really popular in the USA and Middle-East countries, which suffer less pressure of oil-prices drop comparing to Russia, for instance. At the same time, the Middle East market has its own specific features which should be reflected in SUV Marketing Campaign. It can be difficult to have Global Campaign and still be successfully implemented in these specific markets.

To understand better and to assess the automobile industry context in which Jaguar company operates it’s necessary to pay attention to the Porter’s 5 Forces analysis too.

Porter 5 forces

Suppliers’ bargaining power: low

Generally, suppliers’ bargaining power in a car industry is low because there are many suppliers in the market and they are often of a small and medium size while car manufactures are much larger and globalised and can choose their suppliers from various options. Jaguar is not an exception from this tendency; it has a wide choice of suppliers according to its quality standards and can negotiate the profitable conditions for itself. About one third of components for Jaguar are coming from British firms (Mullen 2014) and several examples of suppliers are Rosti McKechnie Ltd. (Yorkshire), Automotive Insulations Ltd (Rugby) and The Sertec Group (Birmingham) (The official Media Centre for Jaguar Land Rover 2015).

Customers’ bargaining power: medium

Jaguar customers have substantial power because of the great variety of luxury brands to choose from. Customers can choose a car that will fit best into their preferences, status and lifestyle among many options. Therefore Jaguar should constantly meet high expectations of the customers and bring new innovations to be distinct from its competitors. On the other hand, brand loyalty is also important and Jaguar has its target group of customers who probably will not be interested in purchasing BMW or Mercedes. Therefore customers’ bargaining power is medium and not high in this case.

 

Threat of substitutes: high

Jaguar cars can be seen from two main perspectives: as a means of transportation and a status symbol. For both cases there can be different substitutes. In the luxury car market customers can switch their attention to Porsche, BMW or Mercedes which are Jaguar’s main competitors (Hoovers, no date). If considering Jaguar just a means of transportation, in the non-luxury segment such brands as Ford, Fiat or Volkswagen or even any other means of transport, even motorbikes or motorcycles, can be considered as an alternative. Therefore Jaguar pays constant attention to innovations, quality, design and advertising campaigns to preserve their target customers and to prove their uniqueness in the luxury cars market.

Threat of new entrants: low

There are significant barriers to enter the luxury car market such as huge investments required, loyalty of the customers to the particular brand (Jaguar in our case), high competition in the industry and environmental regulations. For instance, Jaguar Land Rover company is going to invest about £1bn in the new factory in Slovakia which will start operating in 2018 (Tovey, 2015).

This is just an example of the amount of investment to be made by Jaguar and it’s very difficult for new entrants to find funds to pay high initial costs. Moreover, Jaguar dates back to 1922 (Jaguar Land Rover, no date) and has a very good reputation and the new entrants wouldn’t have such a strong advantage.

Rivalry: high

The competition in the premium market is extremely high. To be distinct from its competitors Jaguar is constantly working on its design, performance and technology and is a world leader in the area of aluminium body construction (Jaguar Land Rover, no date). Besides, Jaguar aims at creating a car that is the closest thing to something alive, as alive and intuitive as a jaguar itself, the symbol of the brand.

Brand Pyramid

Features and Attributes

Features and attributes are the lists of plenty small and characteristic features that the brand and its products are created of. This stage shows the fundamentals of brand essence and gives the idea where the differences between competitors start (Business Strategy, no date).

Jaguar has engineered their models to create an outstanding car for their customers with 3 basic features (Jaguar Land Rover, 2014):

Luxury – Elegant, classy and comfortable are Jaguar’s quintessence

Sport – Agile and Powerful. Jaguar’s cars are designed for high-performance innovative shape.

Design – Innovative and distinctive. Jaguar doesn’t give you a car. It gives you a lifestyle.

 

 

Functional benefits

demonstrate the main practical usage of the product and what kind of needs it satisfies (Noesis Marketing, 2011). Engine, sound, beauty and comfort. Jaguar seduces customers with the opportunity to explore unforgettable driving experience and the feel power. Additionally, they pay a lot of attention to create inventions and new technological solutions, which makes Jaguar always one step ahead from competitors.

Emotional benefits

is the first stage that is related to our feelings and spirit preferences. Brand Associations distinguish product and companies into groups and make emotional connections with people and their personalities (Business Strategy, no date). Jaguar is different, Jaguar swims against the tide, Jaguar breaks the rules and proves that being bad is good. Animal instinct and wildness give opportunity or even make their customers excite senses and make them ready for any challenge.

Brand persona

is someone to whom the consumers can compare themselves to. The image of a person and their features, who uses a particular product (Business Strategy, no date). Let’s think about Jaguar as a person. What are they like, what do they look like, what do they do? Let’s imagine David. He is self confident, elegant and full of passion for life. Moving forward, taking risks and winning. He doesn’t regret anything, he just takes what he needs, because he must be the best and he knows how to do it.

The brand idea

is an overview of the brand in a few words, that’s gives a core meaning of the brand. Summarising all stages, it is finally possible to discover the pure brand essence of Jaguar (Business Strategy, no date). Jaguar is a forefront of the premium automotive industry. Its DNA is all about performance and chic, thus the brand idea is named Art of Performance.

 

 

Marketing Mix

Product

The Product is defined with the function and features offered by a good or service. Also factors such as design, branding and quality are covered by the product (Business Case Studies, no date). Jaguar produces a range of premium vehicles, that are synonymous with high performance, innovation, quality and in-depth design. The product portfolio encompasses the XJ saloons, the F-TYPE Coupé and convertible two-seater sport cars, the XF Sportbrake and XF and the new XE sports saloon (Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC, 2015).

Across this portfolio the DNA of Jaguar is instantly recognisable and is reflected through all of the cars – sleek and seductive; powerful and agile; instinctive and confident (Jaguar, 2015). But the product range not only embodies these brand values, but also includes significant improvements and changes to increase performance of the product, economy and refinement (Superbrands annual, 2012).

 

Place

The Element Place of the Marketing Mix covers the availability of the product to the customer in the most suitable way (Business Case Studies, no date). Jaguar is a global company with an intensive distribution and sales network around the United Kingdom and most countries around the world (UK Essays, no date). Over 80 Percent of the Jaguar vehicles are manufactured at Castle Bromwich and are exported to 101 markets all over the world including Europe, China and the USA (Jaguar, 2015). Other manufacturing plants are located in China, India and Brazil.

The Company is committed to the United Kingdom regarding the product development, design and manufacturing facilities. Jaguar vehicles are sold in 170 countries supported by a global network of over 2.640 franchised dealers and 19 national sales companies (Jaguar Land Rover Automotive PLC, 2015).

 

Price

There are different pricing strategies such as market penetration, competitive or strategic pricing, that a company can choose to position its products. Jaguar vehicles are established in the premium price segment and are positioned through a strategic pricing strategy. Through this strategy it is possible to make an exclusive product or brand more desirable and valuable for customers and generate demand (Business Case Studies, no date).

The car prices for a Jaguar start from 53,375$ up to more then 100,000$ (Truecar, 2015).

 

Promotion

The intention of promotion is to generate awareness, a desire and an interest in consumers to buy the product. Promotion can also be useful to change or create a brand image and to preserve the market share of the brand (Business Case Studies, no date).

Since 2011 Jaguar have established their own in- house creative agency, called Spark 44, to initiate a new and creative strategy for all of the brand communications. Because of the dynamic and prestigious nature of Jaguar cars, experiential activities build up the cornerstone of Jaguars promotion strategy. Therefore Jaguar hosts hundreds of events every year such as track experiences or the Goodwood Festival of Speed, to encourage people to take a look behind the wheel of Jaguar. Based on the fact that Jaguar stands for Performance, the brand is highly involved in sport industry. They are an official vehicle provider for the Lawn Tennis Association, The England Cricket Team and also Team Sky. Furthermore they support a selection of other clubs, charitable causes and venues. “The Jaguar Academy of Sport, in particular, demonstrates its long term commitment to recognising, celebrating and inspiring the next generation of British sporting heroes” (Superbrands annual, 2012).

For their communications, Jaguar uses different channels such as print, billboard, video and social media. Their recent TV-Spots, billboards and print advertisements were characterised by the typical ’’Bond style’’ performance: attractive men and the car were standing in focus. Now they are addressing more the technological aspect with campaigns such as “British Intelligence”.

For the entry into the Chinese market, Jaguar introduced David Beckham as the Brand ambassador who will be presented in above the line campaigns. (Jaguar news, 2015).

 

Brand Communication in Different Market

The main colors, which are red, black, white and metallic and also the logo, can be found in all of its global branding, advertisements and websites. The magnificence and sleekness, the brand is characterised for, are consistent from well established markets for example United Kingdom and United States to developing markets like Brazil, Russia and India.

Online and Offline media channels of the company feature the luxury and performance of the car as well as the technical excellence. Through the main Jaguar website customers are able to access each country local website. In addition to that, the design of the web-sites is identical and there is a company logo on the top, model selection menu and branding image.

There are some local differences within the websites such as pre-owned or used car options, but every website still suits the global brand guidelines. This is an efficient way to establish a unique brand positioning for the Jaguar cars in every country.

Jaguar usually has global advertising campaigns because its vehicles all have the same target customers worldwide – who are looking for luxury cars and sharp driving experience. However there are some peculiarities in different markets (Zaretsky, 2004).

 

 

Brand Communication in United State

In the U.S. market, car producers pay strong attention to spacious and reliable cars to accommodate large families and provide their customers with high performance under rough conditions. In the United States Jaguar is driven by the customers passion for sports cars, featuring the appearance in several James Bond movies and different races, where the company took part. At the same time the company created two local U.S. campaigns.

The XF campaign ‘’Not Business as Usual’’ which is a television spot and ‘’Rare and Meant to Be’’ which is an XJ online campaign (Jaguar news, 2015). Both campaigns feature the enhanced interior, performance and design.

 

Brand Communication in Asia

Compared to the other markets, the consumers of the Asian market have more demand for technology and innovations such as electronic driving assistance features, navigating systems, multimedia and mobile options. Based on that, the advertisement in Asian markets highlight these aspects through campaigns such as ‘’British intelligence’’.

Despite of technological aspects, Jaguar constantly focuses on superior and luxurious driving experience. To support this image, the company select brand ambassadors which reflect the brand as a person. In China, for example, Jaguar introduced David Beckham as a brand ambassador. At the same time, Jaguar organises product launches in collaboration with local artists: for example in Singapore violinist Min Lee and filmmaker Eric Khoo took place (Ebeling, 2014).

 

Conclusion

To conclude, Jaguar has a strong brand positioning and good potential for their global market expansion. The Company has stable sales growth, will introduce new models, for example the SUV in 2016 and will have new upcoming advertising campaigns to keep loyal customers and also attract a new target audiences.

Regarding the brand communication, Jaguar focuses on seducing their customers with luxury style, powerful engines and animal instinct to built strong connections with them. As a brand it is targeted to self-confident, brave and wild people and provides them with their pure essence which is “Art of performance”. In addition to that, Jaguar offers wide range of premium vehicles that increased during past years to meet individual expectations of their current and new customers.

The company competes worldwide by intelligent marketing campaigns with a British character in collaboration with British celebrities and actors. At the same time, Jaguars strong global vision forced the company to take in consideration peculiarities of different nationalities and adopt each campaign to consumers behaviour in local markets by using various ways of communication.

However, Jaguar has to pay attention to various factors in terms of industry and market changes such as the perspective that the UK may leave the EU and to the fact that the economy of their main overseas markets are is stable currently.

On the other hand, customers are becoming more demanding in terms of automobile technologies and innovations. It’s very important for the company to have closer partnerships with software and mobile leading development companies to make sure that the latest solutions are integrated.

Based on the fact that previous marketing campaigns were mostly addressed to male drivers, Jaguar should keep in mind the female target group as well and find some new ways of communication to it.

Moreover, Jaguar should also consider to launch the production of motorbikes, because their wild brand image suits motorbike’s lifestyle perfectly. It is recommended to focus on sport/touristic bikes market with luxury design and high performance.

 

 

Did the student properly conclude the findings of the research? Did the student mention the research limitations and how they were addressed?

REQUIRED DISSERTATION CONTENT

  • The dissertation is about 13,000 words and must be submitted in an approved form on a topic related to the Master’s programme in Accounting and Finance. The front sheet, table of contents page, references list, cover page, ethics clearance form, and any appendices would not count in the word count of your dissertation.

 

  • Details about the content of a dissertation are available on NILE in the research methods training folder. See also below a brief description of the content of a dissertation.

 

The dissertation MUST include the following in the same Table of Contents Template:

  1. Cover page (See the cover page template on NILE in the important forms folder)
  2. Assignment submission sheet. The form is available on NILE in the important forms folder.
  3. Research ethics clearance form (see the important forms folder on NILE)
  4. Acknowledgement (i.e. It is your appreciation to all the people that helped you in your dissertation)
  5. Abstract
  6. Table of contents (It is a list of all the content of your dissertation and their page numbers. See the table of contents template on NILE in the important forms folder)
  7. Introduction chapter(s) (see research methods training materials on NILE)
  8. Literature review chapter (see research methods training materials on NILE)
  9. Research methodology, design, and methods chapter (see research methods training materials on NILE)
  10. Data analysis, discussion, and research findings chapter (see research methods training materials on NILE)
  11. Conclusion and recommendation chapter (see research methods training materials on NILE)
  12. References or bibliography (see research methods training materials on NILE and the academic integrity folder)
  13. Appendices (This should be placed at the end of your dissertation. e.g. copy of the questionnaire, interview schedule, data set, SPSS or NVIVO output)

Additional information for structuring the Final dissertation and Proposal are available in Appendix 2 and 3.

REQUIRED DISSERTATION FORMAT

  • Students are required to submit a dissertation of 13,000 words in length (excluding appendices and footnotes). This is a strict word limit and not a recommended guideline. It counts for 60 credits out of students’ degrees and MUST count towards their degree classification.
  • Each chapter in your dissertation should start with an introduction and ends with a summary even the introductory chapters (see the research methods training folder on NILE to learn more about writing your dissertation).
  • All pages should be adequately and consecutively numbered.

DISSERTATION SUBMISSION

You MUST submit the following with your dissertation:

  • Proof of data collection technique used (e.g. copy of questionnaire or interview schedule) and the output of statistical analytical software utilised for the analysis (i.e. SPSS or NVivo output) must be supplied in the appendices section at the end of the dissertation.
  • All submissions should be through Turnitin on NILE.
  • Students could submit their propsal and final draft to check the simalirity up to submission date. However, they can not resubmit after the the due daet. For that please make sure you submit the last draft on the dye date.
  • Turnitin submission for different chapters will not be allowed on NILE (e.g literature review, metholdogy, data analysis and dicusssion). If you wish to get feedback on your dissertation chapters before final submission, please email the draft to your supervisor. The full draft of your disseration must be submitted to your supervisor no later than a month before the due date.
  • No late submissions will be allowed. See the deadline for submission in the important submission dates section of this guide. In the case of mitigating circumstances, please refer to the University policy on mitigating circumstances which is available on the module page on NILE and the University website.
  • The role of Turnitin is to help tutors detect plagiarism by showing the percentage of text matching. However, this is not an indication that a student committed plagiarism. Turnitin creates a report called “the originality report” showing this percentage of text matching in a student’s work. For more information about how to avoid plagiarism and the role of Turnitin, attend the research methods training and see the module page on NILE. Students are allowed to see the originality report only on the due date
  • Module Schedule

All sessions will run Online live podcast using Collaborate Ultra. All sessions will be recoded, and made available to students shortly after. All students will have access to all classes. A doodle will be send to students to choose a preferred time to organise class.

 

18th October 2019 Welcome talk
25th October 2019

Introduction to module and course timetable

What is a Dissertation and producing a good dissertation

Choosing Your Dissertation Topic

Marking criteria

SMART dissertation management: aims and objectives and research questions

1st November 2019 Doing a critical literature review

Working with the Literature

8th November 2019 Philosophy of research 

Research design- Sampling

Mixed methods

15th November 2019

 

Qualitative research overview

Research interviews

Data analysis

22nd November 2019 Quantitative Research overview:

Questionnaire design – Use of Monkey survey

Introduction to online resources for data collection

29th November 2019 Testing the feasibility of your study; testing the availability of your data using DataStream and Orbis
6th December 2019

 

 

 

Validity and reliability in research

Research ethics

Developing a research proposal

Managing your supervisor and the learning agreement

March – April 2020 Data collection – DataStream and Orbis
March -April 2020 Data analysis and the use of SPSS

Descriptive statistics

March – April 2020 Data analysis and the use of SPSS

Advanced statistics

 

Important  Submission deadlines

Please find below the submission deadline for your assessents

09 December 2019 Submit your research topic on NILE
16 December 2020 Expected date of appointment of supervisors
27 January 2020 Submit Research Proposal and ethics form – Annex 1 on Nile
21 August 2020 Suggested date to submit draft dissertation to supervisors for feedback
21 Sep 2020 Final Dissertation submission on NILE
30 Jan 2021 TBC Dissertation resit submission on NILE

 

Role of dissertation students and supervisor

  Student Supervisor
Arrange

Scheduled

Meetings

Agree a schedule of meetings, deadlines and adhere to them.
Prepare for scheduled meetings Use supervisory time effectively by preparing tutorial in advance. Read draft work and provide formative feedback, engage in other appropriate preparatory work. Drafts will be reviewed up to 14 days before due date.
Attend supervision meetings Keep appointments which have been arranged

 

Provide guidance
Record

Supervision meetings

Take notes of supervisory meetings Record formal supervision meetings (ad hoc meetings in corridors do not count)
Manage any problems For example: ensure work is authentic (academic integrity), that ethical issues are addressed Contact students who (e.g.) Fail to attend arranged sessions (cause-for-concern)

Referencing / plagiarism

 

Seek ethical approval where appropriate Where work involves research with living subjects (human/animal), ensure that ethical approval is obtained prior to commencing the research Ensure students have prompt access to suitable ethics procedures at faculty level, appropriate to the nature of the work being undertaken. Ensure that no work with living subjects commences prior to clearance being obtained.

 

TEACHING, LEARNING, & ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES        

Learning, Teaching and Assessment activities Study hours
Contact hours: (total)

Comprising face-to-face and online contact hours as follows:

16
Face-to-face (total) – this may include the following:

–       Individual Supervision

 

8

 

·         Online contact hours (total)
(comprising online activities with mediated tutor input)
8
Guided independent study hours
(including hours for assessment preparation)
584
Module Total 600

 

ASSESSMENT STRUCTURE

 

Assessment Activity Learning Outcomes Weighting (%)
Code Assessment Type Assessment Deliverables    
AS1 Research Proposal 2000 word proposal   a, b, c, e, f, g 15%
DI Dissertation/ Report 13000 word final dissertation or project report a, b, c, d, e, f, g 85%

 

USE OF NILE

NILE is the University electronic learning site. You are expected to check your NILE site regularly. Important announcements will be posted on NILE. All the teaching materials including teaching notes, seminars exercises, useful web links, past exams, and videos are available on NILE. You are also required to submit your assessments through Turnitin on NILE

FINM025 Rubic- Proposal

Criteria No Submission / no evidence Fail Pass Merit Distinction
Introduction (20%) a) Identify a research topic, develop aims and objectives justified through reference to appropriate literature. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 9.9 points

There is some evidence of a systematic, coherent and analytical engagement with key aspects of the field of study including familiarity with the current literature developments. The topic is ill-defined, little or no rationale for selection of the problem. The introduction falls well short of the threshold standards. There is no clear justification of the research purpose. Aims and objectives are not defined and not justified.

10 to 11.9 points

The introduction is relevant and shows a greater degree of capability in relevant specialised skills. The topic is barely introduced; provides a rationale for selection but is not persuasive. Work of capable quality, which clearly demonstrates knowledge in and a critical awareness of current issues. The research questions, aims and objectives show a good understanding of the field of research.

12 to 13.9 points

The introduction is clear and demonstrates a greater degree of capability and meets research expectations. The topic is introduced; provides a brief rationale for selection of the problem that is persuasive; provides a statement of the problem, its meaning, importance and theories behind it. Includes a clear research question, aim and objectives. Statement of the research purpose and the overall reasons for the study are precise and related to the background of the problem.

14 to 20 points

Exceptional Standard. The introduction is clear, exemplary and provides evidence of a complete understanding of the project expectations. The topic is properly and concisely introduced; provides a brief and persuasive rationale for the selection of the problem. Includes a very clear research question, aim and objectives. Clear demonstration of the research purpose which is clearly linked to the background of the problem.

Literature Review (30%) b) Critically analyse a wide range of literature in accounting and finance. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 14.5 points

Work of poor quality that is based on minimal understanding, application or effort. Some evidence of a systematic, coherent and analytical engagement with aspects of the field of the research, including familiarity with the current literature. Poor volume of up-to-date literature that are from credible sources. Selects inappropriate theoretical framework.

15 to 17.9 points

A quality critical literature review demonstrating a limited understanding. A critical awareness of current issues, the theoretical knowledge at the forefront of the field of study. Insufficient application of up-to-date literature from academic sources. Literature used is related to the research questions and the research question.

18 to 20.9 points

A commendable quality critical literature review. Good use of up-to-date literature from both academic and credible sources. Literature used is related to the research questions and the research question is properly designed and clear. Identifies relevant theoretical framework(s).

21 to 30 points

Excellent and thorough summary of the literature review. Distinguished quality of critical literature review that is up-to-date literature from both academic and credible sources. Literature used is related to the research questions. Clearly identifies relevant theoretical framework(s); provides a rationale.

Research Methodology, Design, and Methods (30%) c) Synthesise and critique the different methodological frameworks that influence research to inform and justify a research methodology. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 14.5 points

Poor methodology. Fails to introduce the research methodology, research design and methods. Includes no researchable questions. Lacks connection between research questions, purpose and problem. No reference to the type of method used. Vaguely describes data analysis procedures.

15 to 17.9 points

A quality but brief research method section which introduces methodology, research design and methods briefly. Lists researchable question(s). Makes a connection between research methods and questions, purpose and problem. Includes a vague and non-persuasive justification for the type of research used. Describes a few of the procedures used to conduct the study for sample recruitment, informed consent, maintaining data.

18 to 20.9 points

A commendable preview of the methods used for this study which introduces research methodology, research design and methods briefly but clearly describes methods. Lists researchable question(s). Makes a clear and compelling connection between research methodology, methods, and research design to address the questions. Describes if research is qualitative or quantitative or mixed methods and provides adequate justification.

21 to 30 points

Exceptionally clear explanation and justification of research philosophy, approach and methods for data collection. Describes if research is qualitative or quantitative or mixed methods. Provides a clear justification for selection of type in relation to research problem and research questions. Includes a proper discussion of research design, the definition of population, sample size, determination and sample techniques used. Clearly describes the procedures used to conduct the study for sample recruitment, informed consent, maintaining data.

Significance of proposed research , Research limitations and direction for future research (10%) e) Develop independent working and project management skills. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 4.9 points

Poor communicated and evaluated preliminary statement of what they may find or demonstrate by having undertaken the research, the importance of this work, limitations and areas for further research development.

5 to 5.9 points

A quality critical preliminary statement of what they may find or demonstrate by having undertaken the research, the importance of this work, limitations and areas for further research development.

6 to 6.9 points

A commendable preliminary statement of what they may find or demonstrate by having undertaken the research, the importance of this work, limitations and areas for further research development.

7 to 10 points

Distinguished well communicated and evaluated preliminary statement of what they may find or demonstrate by having undertaken the research,  the importance of this work,  limitations and areas for further research development.

Professional / academic quality (10%) f) Initiate a reflective and independent approach to learning in managing an extended project. g) Communicate information and present complex arguments, clearly and accurately in a manner suited to an academic audience. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 4.9 points

Poor evidence is included or provided but missing in some very important aspects

5 to 5.9 points

A quality evidence which clearly demonstrates evidence of achieving the requirements of the learning outcomes

6 to 6.9 points

Commendable high quality, demonstrating evidence which is rigorous and convincing, appropriate to the task or activity

7 to 10 points

Distinguishing very high quality, demonstrating evidence which is strong, robust and consistent, appropriate to the task or activity

 

 

 

 

FINM025 Rubic- Final Dissertation

 

Criteria No Submission / no evidence Fail Pass Merit Distinction
Introduction (10%) a) Identify a research topic, develop aims and objectives justified through reference to approriate literature. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 4.9 points

Poor introduction. There is some evidence of a systematic, coherent and analytical engagement with key aspects of the field of study including familiarity with the current topic developments. The topic is ill-defined, little or no rationale for selection of the problem. The introduction falls well short of the threshold standards. There is no clear justification of the research purpose. Aims and objectives are not defined and not justified.

5 to 5.9 points

A quality introduction which shows a greater degree of capability in relevant specialised skills. Topic is barely introduced; provides a rationale for selection but is not persuasive. Work of capable quality, which clearly demonstrates knowledge in and a critical awareness of current issues. The research questions, aims and objectives show a good understanding of the field. A description of the methodology used in the research. An outline of the structure of the dissertation is given.

6 to 6.9 points

A commendable introduction which demonstrates a greater degree of capability and meets research expectations. Topic is introduced; provides a brief rationale for selection of the problem that is persuasive; provides a statement of the problem, its meaning, importance and theories behind it. Clear research question, aim and objectives. Statement of the research purpose and the overall reasons for the study are precise and related to the background of the problem. A good description of the methodology used in the research. A clear outline of the structure of the dissertation is included.

7 to 10 points

Exceptional Standard. The introduction is clear, exemplary and provides evidence of a complete understanding of the project expectations. Topic is properly and concisely introduced; provides a brief and persuasive rationale for selection of the problem, its meaning, importance and theories behind it. Work of distinguished quality, which is evidenced by an authoritative, comprehensive, detailed review of the topic. Very clear research question, aim and objectives. Clear demonstration of the research purpose and is clearly linked to the background of the problem. A concise description of the methodology used in the research. Very clear of the dissertation structure is mentioned

Literature Review (25%) b) Critically analyse a wide range of literature in accounting and finance. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 9.9 points

Poor quality literate review chapter that is based on minimal understanding, application or effort. Some evidence of a systematic, coherent and analytical engagement with aspects of the field of the research, including familiarity with the current literature. Poor volume of up-to-date literature that are from credible sources. Selects inappropriate theoretical framework. Inaccurate definition and description of the theoretical framework with no connection to the problem. Does not examine any assumptions of theoretical. There is no rationale for hypotheses/ interview and/or survey.

10 to 14.9 points

A quality critical literature review chapter, however, the LR demonstrates a limited understanding. A critical awareness of current issues, the theoretical knowledge at the forefront of the field of study. Insufficient application of up-to-date literature from academic sources. Literature used is related to the research questions and the research question is clear. Identifies and analyses the theoretical framework(s) without a clear connection to the problem. The rationale for hypotheses/ interview and/or survey questions is very limited and unclear. Includes a brief summary of the literature.

15 to 17.4 points

A commendable quality critical literature review chapter which demonstrates a detailed and systematic knowledge and understanding in specialised areas, informed by a critical awareness of current issues and theoretical insights of the field of study. Good use of up-to-date literature from both academic and credible sources. Literature used is related to the research questions and the research question is properly designed and clear. Identifies relevant theoretical framework(s). Connects theoretical framework(s) to the problem and uses it to analyse the problem. The hypotheses/ interview and/or survey questions are generally addressed however the rationale for development is limited with very little reference to published work.  Includes a complete summary of the literature, with tentative conclusions and a brief transition to methods chapter.

17.5 to 25 points

Distinguished quality of critical literature review chapter that is evidenced by an authoritative comprehensive, detailed, systematic knowledge and understanding of area of study. Work is characterised by strong technical expertise to high professional quality, ability to work with creativity and originality using accurate knowledge and insights at the forefront of the field of study. Sufficient and up-to-date literature from both academic and credible sources. Literature used is related to the research questions and the research question must be properly designed and clear. Clearly identifies relevant theoretical framework(s); provides a rationale. Insightfully connects theoretical framework(s) to the problem and uses framework(s) to analyse the problem. The rationale for hypotheses/ interview and/or survey questions are well supported with the literature. Excellent and thorough summary from literature review with robust transition to methods chapter.

Research Methodology, Design, and Methods (20%) c) Synthesise and critique the different methodological frameworks that influence research to inform and justify a research methodology. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 9.9 points

Poor quality research methods chapter. Fails to re-introduction to the purpose of the study including research problem and/or question; transition to methods not included. Fails to introduce the research methodology, research design and methods. Includes no researchable questions. Lacks connection between research questions, purpose and problem. No reference to the type of method used. Vaguely describes data analysis procedures. Does not tie procedures closely to research questions. No critique of the methodological literature.

10 to 11.9 points

A quality research methods chapter which Re-introduces purpose of the study including research problem and/or question; transition to methods vague, if included. Introduces methodology, research design and methods briefly. Lists researchable question(s). Makes a connection between research methods and questions, purpose and problem. Vague and non-persuasive justification for the type of research used. Describes a few of the procedures used to conduct the study for sample recruitment, informed consent, maintaining data. Describes only a few of the details of the protocols and steps taken during data collection. A few questions remain about the procedures and protocols. Discusses methodological literature with an incomplete connection to the chosen method.

12 to 13.9 points

A commendable research methods chapter which re-introduces the purpose of the study including research problem and question; transition to methods included. Introduces research methodology, research design and methods briefly but clearly describes methods. Lists researchable question(s). Makes a clear and compelling connection between research methodology, methods, and research design to address the questions. Describes if research is qualitative or quantitative or mixed methods and provides adequate justification. Describes most of the details of the protocols and steps taken during data collection. Discusses existing methodological literature, makes the connection to the chosen method.

14 to 20 points

Excellent methodology chapter which clearly and succinctly re-introduces purpose of the study including research problem and question; smooth transition to methods is included. Demonstrates advanced control, understanding, depth and insight in the application of relevant research methodology, techniques and design. Clear explanation of research aims and questions. Exceptionally clear explanation and justification of research philosophy, approach and methods for data collection. Describes if research is qualitative or quantitative or mixed methods. Provides a clear justification for selection of type in relation to research problem and research questions. A Proper discussion of research design, definition of population, sample size, determination and sample techniques used. Clearly describes the procedures used to conduct the study for sample recruitment, informed consent, maintaining data. Critiques methodological literature and justifies the selection of research methods.

Data Analysis, Results and Discussion (20%) d) Collect, analyse and interpret data in the context of existing literature. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 9.9 points

Poor quality analysis and discussion chapter which displays a low level of research methodology, interpretation, findings and layout that it can be regarded as unacceptable. No re-introduction to purpose of the study including research problem and/or question; transition to results not included. Inappropriate analysis of data not connected to research question and purpose. Inaccessible and confusing presentation of results; a very limited variety of charts, table or data displays included. Findings not interpreted correctly and are not supported by evidence nor linked to research questions. Does not identify the limitations of the study.

10 to 11.9 points

A quality analysis and discussion chapter which re-introduces purpose of the study including research problem and/or question; transition to results vague, if included. Satisfactory understanding of the significance of the research and a reasonably effective interpretation and application of the methodology. Shows limited awareness of the study’s applicability to the topic. Appropriate analysis of most of the data, vaguely connected to research question and purpose. Somewhat accessible and understandable presentation of results; limited variety of charts, table or data displays included. Findings interpreted and sometimes supported by evidence and vaguely linked to research questions. Shows a lack of awareness of at least one major area of limitation in the research methodology and/or findings. Does not recognise how the current study may be improved.

12 to 13.9 points

A commendable analysis and discussion chapter which re-introduces purpose of the study including research problem and question; transition to results included. Adequate knowledge and understanding of the significance of the research. Good organisation and application of research methodology. Demonstrates high levels of understanding and originality in the analysis (theoretical and/or empirical) of the research findings. Appropriate analysis of data, connected to the research question and purpose. Accessible and understandable presentation of results; a variety of charts, table or data displays included. Findings interpreted correctly and supported by evidence and address research questions. There is evidence of personal insights and experience into the field. The research findings make a significant contribution to the knowledge base of the discipline and field of study. Identifies limitations of the study.

14 to 20 points

Distinguished analyses and discussion chapter which clearly re-introduces the purpose of the study including research problem and question; smooth transition to results included. Demonstrates advanced control, understanding, depth and insight in the application of relevant research methodology, techniques and analysis. Includes a comprehensive discussion of the analysis of results from many different perspectives in a scholarly and objective manner. Appropriate and thoughtful analysis of data, clearly connected to the research question and purpose. Excellent and clearly understandable presentation of results; a variety of charts, table or data displays included. Findings interpreted correctly and directly supported by evidence and clearly address research questions. Conclusions follow from results, are accurately described in detail in terms of data analysis, and show methodological and conceptual rigour. Designs changes to study that would account for the above-mentioned limitations.

Conclusion and Recommendation (15%) e) Develop independent working and project management skills. f) Initiate a reflective and independent approach to learning in managing an extended project. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 7.4 points

Poor quality conclusion chapter of the study including research problem and/or question, however, the transition to the conclusion not included. fails to reach a logical/valid conclusion. The final summary fails to communicate the purpose and findings of the study, and the use of terminology is confusing. No mention of the research aims and objectives, limitations and how they were addressed. No evidence of recommendations for future studies. No attention paid to implications.

7.5 to 8.9 points

A quality conclusion chapter which includes research problem and/or question; transition to conclusion vague, if included. The conclusions are not in all respects logical and valid, and they are communicated with only partial success. The final summary does not communicate the purpose and findings of the study. Mention of the research aims and objectives, limitations. Recommendations for future studies are sometimes appropriate but not clearly linked to findings/outcomes.

9 to 10.4 points

A commendable conclusion chapter which includes the research problem and question; transition to conclusion included. The conclusions are logical and valid. The conclusions are communicated clearly and, where applicable, they are linked. The final summary communicates the purpose and findings of the study. Conclusions follow from the results and are explained in terms of the analysis of the data. Mention of the research aims and objectives, limitations and how they were addressed. Recommendations for future studies are appropriate and linked to findings/outcomes. Implications for policy/practice is included.

10.5 to 15 points

Distinguished conclusion chapter which includes the purpose of the study including research problem and question; smooth transition to conclusion included. The conclusions are logical and valid and show a strong awareness of the authoritative published literature. The conclusions are clearly communicated and evaluated and, where applicable. The final summary is relevant and communicates the purpose and findings of the study in clearly understandable terms. Mention of the research aims and objectives, limitations and how they were addressed. Recommendations for future studies are insightful, appropriate and linked to findings/outcomes. Implications for policy/practice included. Implications linked to the data.

Professional / academic quality (10%) g) Communicate information and present complex arguments, clearly and accurately in a manner suited to an academic audience. 0 to 0 points

Work submitted is of no academic value/nothing submitted

1 to 4.9 points

Poor quality evidence included or provided but missing in some very important aspects.

5 to 5.9 points

Quality work which clearly demonstrates evidence of achieving the requirements of the learning outcomes.

6 to 6.9 points

Work of high quality, demonstrating evidence which is rigorous and convincing, appropriate to the task or activity.

7 to 10 points

Work of excellent quality, demonstrating evidence which is strong, robust and consistent, appropriate to the task or activity

 

Masters dissertation Topic submission form [Select Date]

(Appendix 1)

Student Name   Student No  
Student Email    
Have you discussed your topic with a tutor? (Yes No)    
Was your topic approved? (Yes/ No)    
What is your estimated deadline for submitting your draft    

Dissertation Topic

Indicate the proposed title of your study (Maximum 30-words)

 

This activity has the following subtasks:

2.   Why is this topic relevant, important or interesting?

Use citations and references to support your answer

 

2.   How your topic relates to past research in this field?

 Indicate the link to previous research with reference to published work.

3.   What are the main concepts and theories that could be relevant to your topic?

Indicate the concepts and theories that are relevant to your topic

4.   What could be the appropriate methodology for your topic?

Indicate which method will be used quantitative/ qualitative- secondary /primary data and how you intend to collect data and why?  Do you intend to use statics model for data analyses? Are you familiar with your proposed chosen method for data collection and analyses? If not how are you planning to overcome these challenges?

5.   Will your topic require ethical approval?

Explain if your research will require ethical approval? and how you intend to approach the participants?

6.   Lists at least 7 key references that are related to your work?

Include an indicative list of 7 key references that are directly line.

Initial Topic Approval

Consult a tutor that you think is expert in your topic and ask them for their initial approval of the topic.

Tutor Name:

 

 

   Initial Feedback: 

 

 

Date:

 

 

     

Post Graduate Dissertations FINM025

Writing guidelines (Appendix 2)

 

Dissertation Criteria
Proposal

(Appendix 2)

  • Does the proposal include a clear introduction to the dissertation topic, including:

–          A research problem (i.e. gaps in the literature)?

–          Aims and objective/ hypotheses?

–          A mini literature review of the of the topic including a review of theories and findings?

–          The methods that will be used for data collection, and how data will be analysed?

–          The outcome of the research and limitation?

 

Chapter One: Introduction
  • Did the student clearly introduce the topic?
  • Did the student clearly demonstrate the aims and importance and contribution of the study?
  • Did the student briefly describe the methodology used in his/her research?
  • Did the student mention how the thesis will be structured?
Chapter Two: Literature Review
  • Did the student include an overview of the research topic?
  • Did the student properly introduce the topic, its meaning, importance, & theories behind it
 

 

  • Did the student critically review the literature?
  • Did the student use sufficient and up-to-date literature?
  • Did the student use academic and credible sources?
  • Did the literature used is related to the research questions?
  • Are the research questions / Hypothesis/ and or interview question clear and appropriately designed ?
  • Are the Hypotheis / Interview questions/ or survery questions aligned with the Literature?

 

Chapter Three: Research Methodology, Design, and Methods
  • Did the student clearly explain the research aims and questions?
  • Did the student clearly explained and justified their research philosophy, approach and methods for data collection?
  • Did the student properly explain how the research was designed?
  • Did the student define the study population and sample, mention how sample size was determined and what was the sampling technique used?
  • Are the research methods used for data collection valid and relevant to the research aims/questions?
  • Did the student properly describe the methods used for data collection and analysis?
  • Did the student demonstrate an awareness of the different ethical issues in their research and how it was addressed?
 Chapter Four: Data Analysis, Results,  and Discussion
  • Did the student properly analyse, and present the data?
  • Did the student properly discuss and explain the research results?
  • Did the student properly discuss the research findings in accordance to the Literature findings?
Chapter Five: Conclusion and Recommendation
  • Did the student mention the research aims and importance?
  • Did the student properly conclude the findings of the research?
  • Did the student mention the research limitations and how they were addressed?
  • Did the student make any recommendations?
References/

Bibliography

Please keep in mind that academic integrity cannot be compromised. If a student committed plagiarism, his/her work will be submitted to the misconduct committee for a decision. Penalties range from a reduction of the grade to dismissal from the programme of study depending on the degree of the offence.

  • Did the student use credible sources?
  • Did the students use sufficient and up-to-date sources?
  • Did the student follow every aspect of the Harvard referencing guide?

 

Appendix 3- FINM025

Accounting and Finance Proposal Writing guidelines

 

Proposal Criteria
1.

Introduction and background (Terms of Reference)

 

–         Did the student provide the underlying rationale for this research? And research gap?

 

 

 

–         Was the student able to identify how this study will contribute to the literature/ practice? And, what is the research dissertation to achieve?

 

 

–         Did the student outline the research question? Alternatively, proposition(s) or hypothesis?

–         Did student clearly indicate the aim and objectives of this research? (Objectives should commence with a verb – to ascertain, to establish, to recommend, etc.)

Research Rationale (Statement of Problem)

 

The purpose of the Research (What is the study trying to achieve?)
 

 

Research question (or propositions or hypotheses)

 

2.

Critical Literature Review

(Indication of the literature that informs your research)

 

 

Theoretical frameworks (Role of theory)

–     #

Did the student provide a preliminary, critical evaluation of seminal and previous research?  Addressing What are the key studies in your topic area and how these are related to the issues you intend to look at in your research?

 

–     Did the student identify the working concepts/models and theoretical frameworks that are used to guide the research? The student should address

What is the role of the theory in research? Moreover, what ways the theories will be used?

 

Note: This section provides an introduction to the literature search chapter of the dissertation.

3. Methodology and methods –     Did the student provide and outline how they plan to go about doing the research?
 

 

 

 

Research Design (description of proposed research – type of study)

 

 

 

 

 

 

Methods for data collection

 

 

–     Did the student include a justification of the methodological approach they intend to employ? and the implications of this methodology?

 

–     Did the student include a clear and precise explanation of how the data for the study will be collected, what methods will be utilised?  Support the terms and techniques identified with academic references and explanations.

 

 

 

-This section should make reference to sampling methods and limitations of the study. Refer to the range and types of data that are available when conducting academic research.

 

 

Research Context (e.g. industry sector, organisation)

 

 

 

–     Did the student provide the context of thier proposed research? Key features, characteristics! Who will be studied? How many? How will they be selected (i.e. sampling)?

 

Procedure (i.e. what happened from the participants’ perspective)

 

 

 

Methods for data analysis Ethical considerations

 

–     Was the student able to anticipate any problem they might have in implementing the methods. E.g How will they will access people? How they collect questionnaire data?

 

 

–     Was the student able to ensure that their research meets the ethical standards of the University?  (See the ethics form on NILE site). Did the student address how they will protect confidentiality?

4. Discussion Significance of proposed research (Research Contribution)

 

 

Research limitations and direction for future research

 

 

Did the student provide a preliminary statement of what they may find or demonstrate by having undertaken the research? Moreover, what is the importance of this work?

 

Was the student able to envisage the study limitations and identify areas for further research development?

 

Note: All research has limitations, and you will certainly be limited by the time available to do this work. The scope of a dissertation is limited, and there may be an area that would benefit from further research, for example, a different region or business sector might provide different outcomes to strengthen or generate additional insights into your selected area.

5. Provisional work schedule –     Did the student include a timetable for completing the research indicating the tasks necessary to complete each segment? Don’t forget to include slippage time.
6. References –     Did the student provide a correct referencing with a comprehensive citation and reference list?

 

 

 

What are the perceptions of teachers, students and parents about the use of technology to support language learning?

Refining research problem

The focal point of my research topic is in relation to the use of technology to support language learning and the perceptions of teachers and students in the integration process of using technology in the classrooms. Technology integration can be seen as a challenging topic to research on, due to the vastness of its context that leads to rapid changes in technological tools and various outcomes, depending on implementation (Vega, 2015) However, when applied effectively and efficiently, technology can enhance instruction and boost students’ interest(Gilakjani,2017). Following the feedback from my tutor/peer in Unit One, I have decided to re-phrase the first two questions for my research as the prior questions were not specific enough.

My research questions now are:

(1) What is the significance of technology on language learning?

(2) What strategies or methods can be used for enhancing lessons to engage learners?

(3) What are the perceptions of teachers, students and parents about the use of technology to support language learning?

Developing a well-focused question is a critical step in the research process. It is important that my questions should not be too broad or too narrow, the questions should be precise and give more direction for research, also making sure the topic is relevant for other people. In order to refine and expand my research, it is important to identify as many literature as possible. Literature search provides the accessibility to gain more knowledge on the topic as well as give insights of how the topic was under- studied (Grewal et al., 2016). In order to expand my literature review, I need to obtain literature that are peer-reviewed as this encourages researchers in striving to produce high quality research. Research done within the last five years are preferable to use (Kelly et al., 2014)

I will need to expand my databases/search engines searches by including Semantic Scholar Scopus, Google Scholar , Research Gate. Academic search also expands by filtering books, magazines from other sources. Some academic sources have their own process which means looking up other sources may help me to discover evidence that can crucially support or contradicts my own hypothesis, that I may not have otherwise consider. Actively expanding the amplitude of my context, will help me to refine my research questions so that I have a more holistic view of my topic in question. An effective method of finding academic sources on my research is to transform my topic into a question, identifying the main concepts or keywords. I can expand the keywords with related synonyms and use in library databases. Another alternative is I could check references on sources for a comprehensive list of articles on my topic. I am unaware of how many articles is adequate for my literature review. My goal is to aim for quality literature review, and for this, you need to have a substantive quantity of sources. For organization purposes, I have designed a summary table for recording my literature review so I can have quick access to information and ensure there is no repetition in researching.

References:

Gilakjani, A.P (2017) A review of Literature on the Integration of Technology into the Learning and Teaching of English Language skills. http://doi.org/10.5539/ijel.v7n5p95

Grewal, A.,Kataria, H.and Dhawan,I. (2016) Literature searched for research planning and identification of research problem.

Kelly,J.,Sadeghieh,T. and Adeli,K.(2014)Peer Review in Scientific Publications:Benefits,Critiques, and Survival Guide.

Vega,V.(2015) Technology Integration Research Review.

What are the most important green communication strategies that influence millennials in purchasing products?

Thesis Proposal

Introduction

Green marketing has grown to be the most prevalent concern for organizations (Wu & Chen 2014; Bailey, Mishra, & Tiamiyu, 2016). Green marketing provides companies with tools to put in exercise their eco-friendly intervention and thus respond to the increased public concerns on climate change and global warming. According to Wu and Chen (2014), consumers today are more aware of their environment, health, and the need to make the environment more sustainable for future generations. Consequently, the consumers are more conscious of the efforts by firms to make environments more sustainable. At the same time, companies have realized the benefits of working in line with the interest of the consumer and society as success and long-term performance depend on them. As such, most organizations have implemented green marketing strategies such as eco-labeling, eco-packaging, and design of recycled products, among others.

Statement of the Problem

Green marketing strategies are essential as they not only benefit business but also help the environment. According to Bailey et al. (2016), there is an increasing market for sustainable and socially responsible services and products. Green marketing strategies, such as eco-friendly packaging, reduce pollution to the environment, and firms can appeal to a broader range of consumers at the same time.

However, it is challenging for consumers to accurately confirm their perception of the level of dishonesty presented in green marketing advertisements (De Jong, Harkink, & Barth, 2018). This, therefore, creates an issue on how much knowledge the consumers have about green marketing efforts. Nevertheless, consumers generally agree that green marketing strategies are essential to ensure the sustainability of environments.

Green marketing awareness has significantly increased that the general population is now changing their consumption behavior (Bailey et al., 2016). There is a need to consider consumer behavior towards green marketing strategies and, thus, inform companies on the strategy that customers prefer and which, consequently, contributes to more significant outcome in environmental conservation.

Research Aim

Consumer awareness and motivation towards sustainable environments will continuously change that marketplace. The decision of consumers to make a purchase decision that leans towards environmentally friendly decisions can help in reversing the damage to the environment. This study aims to investigate the sustainable factors that are most important to the consumers regarding green products, which consequently influence their purchase decisions.

Research Question

What are the most important green communication strategies that influence millennials in purchasing products?

Literature Review

In their study, Wu and Chen (2014) found that consumer green marketing awareness has had higher impacts on the purchase intentions of green marketing strategies such as environmental cleanser and energy saver lamps compared to the perceived value of innovation. Consequently, firms have increased green marketing strategies to meet consumer expectations. Similarly, Tezer and Bodur (2019) say that companies that incorporate green products with conventional goods increase the consumption experiences of customers. Notably, there is an increased perceived value, which heightens appreciation of the products.

Unfortunately, firms do not always succeed in their green marketing strategies. Marketers are not well equipped with tools and strategies needed to identify marketing consumer segments that best fit their green marketing strategies (Gonzalez, Felix, Carrete, Centeno, & Castano, 2015). For this, Gonzalez et al. (2015) performed a study to investigate pro-environmental behavior and found that there is a need to incorporated attitudes and demographic variables as opposed to an exclusive focus on high or low adoption of environmental behaviors. Therefore, there is a need to understand the variables that affect consumer behavior on green products and thus implement strategies that will ultimately lead to sustainable performance.

Research Gap

While research provides that green marketing strategies are fundamental and mostly used by companies not only to promote environmental sustainability but also to increase organizational performance (Wu & Chen, 2014; Tezer & Bodur, 2019), there is limited information on effective green marketing strategies. While Gonzalez et al. (2015) provide a need to combine attitudinal variables with demographics in green marketing; no research has investigated factors that are most important for customers, which are incorporated in their purchase decisions.

Research Methodology

To assess the trade-off that consumers make when evaluating different green communication strategies, the research use a quantitative design. Specifically, an experiment will be carried out using a 2×2 factorial design to evaluate millennials’ perception of two environmental attributes and the interaction between them. These elements are the presence, or not, of recycled plastic in the packaging and the presence, or not, of the EU ecolabel.

The population will be millennials in Italy.

References

Bailey, A. A., Mishra, A., & Tiamiyu, M. F. (2016). GREEN consumption values and Indian consumers’ response to marketing communications. Journal of Consumer Marketing, 33(7), 562-573.

De Jong, M. D., Harkink, K. M., & Barth, S. (2018). Making green stuff? Effects of corporate greenwashing on consumers. Journal of Business and Technical Communication32(1), 77-112.

Gonzalez, E. M., Felix, R., Carrete, L., Centeno, E., & Castano, R. (2015). Green shades: A segmentation approach based on ecological consumer behavior in an emerging economy. Journal of Marketing Theory and Practice23(3), 287-302.

Tezer, A., & Bodur, H. O. (2019). The greenconsumption effect: How using green products improves consumption experience. Journal of Consumer Research.

Wu, S. I., & Chen, Y. J. (2014). The impact of green marketing and perceived innovation on purchase intention for green products. International Journal of Marketing Studies6(5), 81.

How will it advance your project? Why is this method more suitable than another for your particular choice of topic?

Media and Communication (2nd Year)

Module: Research Methods.

Assignment: Portfolio.

Word count: 2000 words [Note: word count does NOT include the bibliography].

 

AIM:

To produce a portfolio that analyses research methods ‘in practice’, providing a critical reflection on research approach and application to a Mass Observation project.

Learning Outcomes for this Assessment

  1. Reflect critically on research practice and investigative strategies.
  2. Evaluate different research approaches for media, cultural and communication research.

 

For this Assignment, you are carrying forward your research question from Assignment 1. It can be adapted/tweaked in line with feedback from Assignment 1 but the fundamental choice of research area should be the same.

 

There are 4 distinct components to the Portfolio:

  • Component 1 (250 words): Outline how you would go about developing your research focus on Mass Observation from Assignment One. (NOTE: Assignment 1 is attached below and I failed in that assignment so please keep this in your consideration to develop that).
  • Component 2 (500 words): Choose ONEof the methodological approaches we have used in seminars to develop your project – observation, interviews OR focus groups. Write a short component on what the approach entails, what the ethical issues are and what your experience of the approach has been – NOTE this component is based solely on work conducted in the corresponding workshop. (NOTE: I am using the OBSERVATION and the methodological approaches for Participant Observation are attached below).

 

  • Component 3 (750 words): Then, reflect on why you have chosen this methodological approach for your Mass Observation project. How will it advance your project? Why is this method more suitable than another for your particular choice of topic (you will need knowledge of all three approaches to make this comparison)?.

 

  • Component 4 (500 words): Finally, consider the ultimate viability of your project in line with the Hansen & Machin (2019) model of the Research Process. Are you ready to proceed forward to data collection and analysis? If not, why not? What has this exercise taught you about the importance of a structured and staged approach to defining Research Projects? How will this be useful to you in Level 6?

 

 

Marking Criteria

Students should be able to demonstrate:

An awareness of their own individual strengths and weaknesses in academic research and project design.

  • A breadth of knowledge of different methodological approaches that they could choose from ( research solely on the one method they have chosen to use is not sufficient, they need to be able to draw informed comparisons between the different approaches)
  • An understanding of key ethical issues that a researcher faces in designing a research project and selecting the most appropriate methodological approach.
  • An evaluative critique of the Hansen & Machin (2019) Research Process model.
  • Quality of organisation, expression, referencing to Harvard APA standard and editing. NOTEThis marking criteria is carried forward from Assignment 1. So I will be looking to see if you have developed this skill and then setting you targets for Level 6 accordingly.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Assignment 1

Bibliography

Catto, Rebecca. “Sociology of Religion in Great Britain: Interdisciplinarity and Gradual Diversification.” Sociologies of Religion , 2015, doi:10.1163/9789004297586_007

Religion is the most basic element of society and culture and it is telling that Mass Observation viewed it from the same distant perspective that other nations did. The sociology of the day recognised that individuals had certain attitudes toward the inexplicable phenomenon of religion. Through Mass Observation, researchers were able to derive their views of British society that determined the meaningfulness of their views from an external viewpoint. Catto traces the history of this approach through its beginning in the Enlightenment. It would therefore be especially useful to apply this argument in this research to justify the view of British society as ruled by those who read and used Mass Observation.

Downs, Carolyn. “Selling Hope: Gambling Entrepreneurs in Britain 1906–1960.” Journal of Business Research, vol. 68, no. 10, 2015, pp. 2207–2213., doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.03.022

This article shows how Mass Observation noted the nature of gambling as a source of entertainment and innovation, while the media used it to communicate certain ideas common to the upper class society in Britain. Gambling was the basis of many struggles within the communities of the first half of the twentieth century in Britain. The role of Mass Observation was to observe different elements of British society. This social observation mode was necessary because it took this part of British society, separated from the rest of the nation solely by income, and treated them like a foreign oddity. This source will therefore link in well with the argument of the research showing that Mass Observation was a principally upper class phenomenon that treated the rest of humanity as mysteriously subhuman. The specific confusion with which society viewed this pursuit of normal human entertainment will be uniquely significant.

Hilliard, Christopher. “Popular Reading and Social Investigation in Britain, 1850s–1940s.” The Historical Journal, vol. 57, no. 1, 2014, pp. 247–271., doi:10.1017/s0018246x13000332

This investigation into the reading practices of the masses of Britain shows the snobbishness and elitism of Mass Observation. The argument raised by the whole view of this analysis, personified by George Orwell, shows the general detachment with which the sociologists at Mass Observation viewed society. Fundamentally, the view analysed the reading tendencies of British society through the lens of their chosen leisure reading material. This analysis had a classist basis looking at individuals earning below 4 pounds a week. Using this diversionary reading as the basis for the analysis, these sociologists confirmed their previous suspicions that the working class was in trouble given the benighted nature of its literature. The distance with which this approach looks at the rest of British society is significant and meaningful enough to establish the case made through the research that Mass Observation had a dominant elitist foundation.

Hogan, J Michael. “The Road Not Taken in Opinion Research: Mass-Observation in Great Britain, 1937–1940.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs, vol. 18, no. 3, 2015, p. 409., doi:10.14321/rhetpublaffa.18.3.0409

This source compares the other alternatives to Mass Observation and justifies the argument that society that Great Britain under this regime was at the forefront of modernity. The vision of Mass Observation came from the idea that society would be better understood if one took the time to observe the behaviour of its constituents. The importance that this society placed on understanding people through a direct observation of their behaviour and interactions set it apart from the previous view that assumed a view of all the views the public held. While this new vision had unmistakeable elitist elements, it was also remarkable as a new scientific method for learning what a group believed. Its modern descendant is opinion polling. For this reason, it provided an unexpected clarity to the views that British society developed of itself, even among the wealthy upper class.

Irving, Henry. “Paper Salvage in Britain during the Second World War.” Historical Research, vol. 89, no. 244, 2016, pp. 373–393., doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12135

Mass Observation was a uniquely significant phenomenon that changed the way British society related with itself. It took over the local preferences for certain phenomena in terms of reading and writing what dominated the nation at the time. Fundamentally, it prioritised the importance of the attitudes rippling through the society at the time. While it had elitist overtones, it placed a special value on knowing what people thought at a given time. This source is useful for showing these dual realities. First, it shows how the government during the war took special and comprehensive efforts to understand the current public attitudes toward the war. At the same time, it also shows how the elitist approach concurrently looked to change these attitudes toward a vision that was more appropriate to the interests they valued higher than individual autonomy.

Lovell, Kristopher. “The ‘Common Wealth Circus’: Popular Politics and the Popular Press in Wartime Britain, 1941–1945.” Media History, vol. 23, no. 3-4, 2017, pp. 427–450., doi:10.1080/13688804.2017.1353908

The Common Wealth Party is another critical example of the fashion in which the national realities uncovered by Mass Observation and similar techniques were not instructive but descriptive. The ruling authorities in British society remained consistently focused on achieving their goals and enforcing their preferred approach to societal challenges. At no point in this whole process did they consider replacing their goals with those of the public. This source shows how the British press did not consider or focus on the Common Wealth Party, a powerful, grassroots organization that threatened the traditional status quo. Instead of recognising this as a further example of the voice of the people, the media simply chose to ignore it, only reporting on it when it became impossible to ignore. This intentional vision came about because the ruling class saw no reason to prioritise the opinions of the working class, even when they understood them.

Moss, Jonathan, et al. “Golden Age, Apathy or Stealth? Democratic Engagement in Britain, 1945–1950.” Contemporary British History, vol. 30, no. 4, 2016, pp. 441–462., doi:10.1080/13619462.2016.1180982

This source is significant because it shows something of the modern contrast to the past, as well as the internalised views of British society. Historically, the only way the high handed approach of the British ruling class has succeeded has been the attitudes among the working class that there were experts in government who genuinely knew what was best. Mass Observation showed that the common people have always been aware that the elites do not listen to them or apply their views. However, the reason the lower classes do not revolt is they believe that the ruling class genuinely does know what is better for everyone. Once this vision of the trustworthiness of the wealthy and powerful ends, the society falls apart. The election of 2015 is contrasted as an example of one of these situations and how the common population no longer holds the same views Mass Observation first discovered.

Noakes, Lucy. “A Broken Silence? Mass Observation, Armistice Day and ‘Everyday Life’ in Britain 1937–1941.” Journal of European Studies, vol. 45, no. 4, 2015, pp. 331–346., doi:10.1177/0047244115599146

This source is especially poignant because it shows how the society of pre-war Britain took a diverse view to the Great War. Despite holding these diverse views, the government of the day proceeded to involve Britain in another war because the elites determined that this second war was worth the effort. Observation of the Armistice Day celebrations was remarkably standard all over Britain in the aftermath of the Great War. However, Mass Observation revealed that while this observation was disparate, there was a greater degree of internal disputes between individuals in terms of the practical application view of the war. Some viewed it as proof that there should be another war to finish the past business. Others saw their participation in these rituals as a way to prevent any future such war from occurring. Nonetheless, the government, standing in for the elites and having the knowledge of national attitudes, proceeded with their preferred choice of action nonetheless.

Nott, James. “The Dancing Front: Dancing, Morale, and the War Effort in Britain during World War II.” Journal of Social History, 2016, pp. 387–406., doi:10.1093/jsh/shw112

Morale during the Second World War was a major focus of the government. The intentional application of the different choices applicable on the day was intentional to guarantee local success in the war. However, recognising the realities of this war, the government had little to no choice but to change local attitudes to the war once it had begun. While historically the remembrance of the war has focused on how propaganda in used dancing in the United States, the reality is that the British government used these techniques as well. Comparing the efforts from the local preferences and attitudes revealed by Mass Observation, the government proceeded to work to incorporate dancing and other techniques to help the war effort. This utilization of dancing to raise morale is a key example of how the use of these observations was not always nefarious.

Pollen, A. “Research Methodology in Mass Observation Past and Present: Scientifically, about as Valuable as a Chimpanzees Tea Party at the Zoo?” History Workshop Journal, vol. 75, no. 1, 2013, pp. 213–235., doi:10.1093/hwj/dbs040

This source is significant because it highlights the radical nature of Mass Observation as a technique for responding to the research methodology of the day. Compared to the traditional methods of dealing with research, it examined the population comprehensively. It took the ideas that were simply entering the mainstream from social sciences and implemented them in a radical and unprecedented fashion. For this reason, many of the observations that Mass Observation produced are considered ground-breaking even today. On the other hand, the way this new technique impacted the society means that there remain significant caveats on how one can respond to the revelations that Mass Observation produces. The real debate that continues today, exemplified in this research, is what the data produced by Mass Observation means. While some look at it as a direct view into a world previously unseen, others see it as a violation and a highly biased view of the attitudes of British society at in the first half of the twentieth century.

Sharpies, Caroline. “Holocaust on Trial: Mass Observation and British Media Responses to the Nuremberg Tribunal, 1945–1946.” Britain and the Holocaust, 2013, pp. 31–50., doi:10.1057/9781137350770_3

This book serves as a counterpoint to the argument showing how the local views in British society concerning the Holocaust were shaped by the Nuremburg trial. The ability of this highly publicised trial was significant because the government of the day was able to trace the way the arguments raised through public discourse. Therefore, the common attitudes found themselves shaped in national sentiment going over the next few years through this direct imposition on British society. Mass Observation in this case observed how the media worked to establish a correct and realistic view of the events of the Second World War to facilitate a meaningful resolution of the results of the war moving forward. While making an argument it is important to present the counterpoints against the argument faithfully, and the accurate observation impact of the Nuremburg on British society is one of the strongest argument for Mass Observation.

Smith, Malcolm. Britain and 1940: History, Myth, and Popular Memory. Routledge, 2000

This book is important because it traces the history of early Second World War Britain in a way that relates significantly to the research. Using the information from Mass Observation as well as other contemporary sources Smith compares the present memory of Britain at this time with the historical vision. This contrast is especially poignant because it shows how individuals from this time had certain views that were significantly different from the present day memory of the time. As a record of the time it shows how useful Mass Observation was in giving a record that runs until the present day in its value as a record of the views that dominated British society versus the current politically tinted memory of that time.

Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, Florence. “Discourses of ‘Class’ in Britain in ‘New Times.’” Contemporary British History, vol. 31, no. 2, 2017, pp. 294–317., doi:10.1080/13619462.2017.1306199

This source is significant because it shows how British society had already developed strong anti-class sentiments by the second half of the twentieth century. This formation of these prejudices is important for showing how Mass Observation tracked the changes in British working class approaches toward the structures of the past and the implicit trust that one’s superiors knew what was better for oneself. It also notes the intentional change among the whole population where individuals sought to distance themselves from a specific class appellation. The use of these class appellations begun to symbolise a specific superciliousness that was in itself considered impolite to hold. It therefore also shows how Mass Observation tracked the upper class morphing in its attitudes toward the rest of British society during this period having recognised developments in the working class sentiments.

Webster, Wendy. “‘Fit to Fight, Fit to Mix’: Sexual Patriotism in Second World War Britain.” Womens History Review, vol. 22, no. 4, 2013, pp. 607–624., doi:10.1080/09612025.2012.751770

This source matters because it shows how comprehensive the insights of Mass Observation remain even today. Mass Observation and the Home Office recorded the Second World War as a time when racial admixture played an unprecedented in the development of Britain as it is today. During the war, there was a significant increase in the number of women who entered British society from different cultures and races. Because of the changed realities of this time, they intermarried with men and helped develop the new face of the British nation. Despite holding shockingly racist views toward these individuals, there were clear changes in local preferences despite the lamenting of the Home Office about moral laxity. This source therefore shows the optimistic element of Mass Observation discoveries: the inability of the British elite to control a people who did not want to be controlled.

Reference

Catto, Rebecca. “Sociology of Religion in Great Britain: Interdisciplinarity and Gradual Diversification.” Sociologies of Religion , 2015, doi:10.1163/9789004297586_007

Downs, Carolyn. “Selling Hope: Gambling Entrepreneurs in Britain 1906–1960.” Journal of Business Research, vol. 68, no. 10, 2015, pp. 2207–2213., doi:10.1016/j.jbusres.2015.03.022

Hilliard, Christopher. “Popular Reading and Social Investigation in Britain, 1850s–1940s.” The Historical Journal, vol. 57, no. 1, 2014, pp. 247–271., doi:10.1017/s0018246x13000332

Hogan, J Michael. “The Road Not Taken in Opinion Research: Mass-Observation in Great Britain, 1937–1940.” Rhetoric and Public Affairs, vol. 18, no. 3, 2015, p. 409., doi:10.14321/rhetpublaffa.18.3.0409

Irving, Henry. “Paper Salvage in Britain during the Second World War.” Historical Research, vol. 89, no. 244, 2016, pp. 373–393., doi:10.1111/1468-2281.12135

Lovell, Kristopher. “The ‘Common Wealth Circus’: Popular Politics and the Popular Press in Wartime Britain, 1941–1945.” Media History, vol. 23, no. 3-4, 2017, pp. 427–450., doi:10.1080/13688804.2017.1353908

Moss, Jonathan, et al. “Golden Age, Apathy or Stealth? Democratic Engagement in Britain, 1945–1950.” Contemporary British History, vol. 30, no. 4, 2016, pp. 441–462., doi:10.1080/13619462.2016.1180982

Noakes, Lucy. “A Broken Silence? Mass Observation, Armistice Day and ‘Everyday Life’ in Britain 1937–1941.” Journal of European Studies, vol. 45, no. 4, 2015, pp. 331–346., doi:10.1177/0047244115599146

Nott, James. “The Dancing Front: Dancing, Morale, and the War Effort in Britain during World War II.” Journal of Social History, 2016, pp. 387–406., doi:10.1093/jsh/shw112

Pollen, A. “Research Methodology in Mass Observation Past and Present: Scientifically, about as Valuable as a Chimpanzees Tea Party at the Zoo?” History Workshop Journal, vol. 75, no. 1, 2013, pp. 213–235., doi:10.1093/hwj/dbs040

Sharpies, Caroline. “Holocaust on Trial: Mass Observation and British Media Responses to the Nuremberg Tribunal, 1945–1946.” Britain and the Holocaust, 2013, pp. 31–50., doi:10.1057/9781137350770_3

Smith, Malcolm. Britain and 1940: History, Myth, and Popular Memory. Routledge, 2000

Sutcliffe-Braithwaite, Florence. “Discourses of ‘Class’ in Britain in ‘New Times.’” Contemporary British History, vol. 31, no. 2, 2017, pp. 294–317., doi:10.1080/13619462.2017.1306199

Webster, Wendy. “‘Fit to Fight, Fit to Mix’: Sexual Patriotism in Second World War Britain.” Womens History Review, vol. 22, no. 4, 2013, pp. 607–624., doi:10.1080/09612025.2012.751770

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Methodological Approaches

Research Methods: Participant Observation – Seminar Task

  • You will split up into groups and will go for 30 minutes to one of the following locations:
  • The Metropolitan Cathedral in Liverpool, UK.
  • The Everyman Bistro.
  • Starbucks in Redmonds Liverpool.
  • The John Foster Student Social Area.
  • The Aldham Roberts Library.

 

  • Observe your setting paying close attention to:
    • How people are using the space.
    • What people are doing, saying.
    • How they are interacting with others.
    • Pace, patterns of use.
  • You want to become ‘part of the setting’ and your presence as an observer should not be noticeable. Do you need to split up for a short period or are there other small groups around you?.
  • Please do not ‘interview’ members of the public-you may ask questions that are appropriate to the setting- for example if you are in FACT or in the cathedral you might ask questions about the exhibitions, order a drink, ask about particular artefacts- this is fine as such questions are part of the setting.
  • Be mindful of how you collect your data- are you in a place where it would be OK to sit and make notes? Perhaps find a specific area where you can and perhaps designate one person to take notes.
  • Remember that you are a University student so please behave appropriately.

On your return, write 500 words on the following:

  • The setting you were observing and what was going on there while you were observing.
  • How you felt as a researcher as opposed to someone just occupying that space? Did you feel different?.
  • Any patterns that you noticed emerging from people’s uses of the space?.
  • What were your main findings?.
  • What else would you like to find out after having done an initial observation?.
  • What other methods might be useful to use in conjunction with observation to help you understand the field more fully?.
  • Any ethical challenges you faced?.

 

 

Critically evaluate the extent to which the mechanism of judicial review and the preliminary ruling procedure allow individuals unhindered access to justice within the EU legal order.

Critically evaluate the extent to which the mechanism of judicial review and the preliminary ruling procedure allow individuals unhindered access to justice within the EU legal order, with reference to relevant case law and academic commentaries.
Please use at least 6 from the following reading list:
Textbooks on EU LAW
Barnard, C. and Peers, S. (eds.) (2017) European Union Law. OUP Oxford 2
nd ed.
Craig, P. and de Búrca, G. (2015) EU Law: Text, Cases, and Materials. OUP Oxford 6th ed.
Chalmers, D.; Davies, G. & Monti, G. (2019) European Union Law: Texts and Materials. CUP 4th ed.
Morano-Foadi, S. and Neller, J. (2018) Fairhurst’s Law of the European Union. Pearson 12th ed.
Kaczarowska-Ireland, A. (2016) European Union Law. Routledge 4th ed.
Cini, M. and Pérez-Solórzano Borragán, N (2016) European Union Politics. OUP Oxford 5th ed.
Peterson J. and Shackleton, M. (2012) The Institutions of the European Union 3rd
Usherwood, S and Pinder, J. (2018) The European Union: A Very short Introduction. OUP Oxford 4th ed.
Davies, K. (2016) Understanding European Union Law. Routledge 6th ed.
Castillo Ortiz, P. J. (2015) EU Treaties and the Judicial Politics of National Courts: A Law and Politics Approach. Taylor & Francis
Craig, P. (2013) The Lisbon Treaty: Law, Politics and Treaty Reform. OUP Oxford 2nd ed.
Ritleng, D. (2016) Independence and Legitimacy in the Institutional System of the European Union. OUP Oxford
Alvarez Rubio, J.J. and Yiannibas (2017) Hu

THIS IS A MUST USE:
Storey, T. and Pimor, A. (2018) Unlocking EU Law. Routledge 5th ed.
PLEASE DO NOT COUNT THE FOOTNOTES AND BIBLIOGRAPHY AS WORDS.
PLEASE WRITE TO A 80% UNDERGRADUATE STANDARD

What is feminism and how does it criticize mainstream criminology? Why did feminists wanted to abandon criminology and what did they end up doing?

FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE*
SALLY S. SIMPSON
University of Maryland
Feminist research has expanded beyond its origins in Women’s Studies
to influence the more traditionally bounded academic disciplines. Criminology
has not been immune to these excursions. This paper presents an
overview of feminist theory/methods and its applications within select
areas of crime and justice studies. Points of intra-theoretical divergence as
well as directions for future feminist contributions are noted.
“WHY CAN’T A WOMAN BE MORE LIKE A MAN?”
One is tempted to respond to Henry Higgins’s familiar lament with a cynical
observation: criminological theory assumes a woman is like a man. As
many feminist-criminologists have noted (early critics include Heidensohn,
1968; Klein, 1973; and Smart, 1976), most middle-range and macro theories
of crime generously assume that what is true for the gander is true for the
goose (see also Harris, 1977). As tempting as this simple assertion might be,
however, a closer inspection reveals a more complicated picture.
Some feminist critics (Daly and Chesney-Lind, 1988) suggest that criminology,
like other social sciences, is androcentric, that is, study of crime and the
justice process is shaped by male experiences and understandings of the social
world. Such studiedrealities form the core of “general” theories of crime/
deviance without taking female experience, as crime participant or victim,
into account:
[Men] create the world from their own point of view, which then
becomes the truth to be described . . . Power to create the world from
one’s point of view is power in its male form (MacKinnon, 1982:23).
Not all criminological research has ignored women, but all too often, pre-
1970s research on female offenders and victims of crime fell prey to unreflecting
sexism and, in its more extreme form, misogyny. Females who deviated
from expected roles were viewed as morally corrupt, hysterical, diseased,
manipulative, and devious (Glueck and Glueck, 1934). Law-violating and
-conforming behaviors were believed to stem from the same etiological
source-the female nature (Edwards, 1985; Klein, 1973).1 A woman, it
* My thanks to Kathleen Daly, Nicole Hahn Rafter, and N. Craig Smith for their
insightful comments on a draft of this paper. I was assisted in my revisions by the
criticisms of three anonymous reviewers. All of the above are to be commended for their
assistance, but none is responsible for the ideas and arguments contained herein.
1. This is not to suggest that biological reductionism is absent in studiedtheories of
male criminality. Such explanations of male crime abound (e.g., Wilson and Herrnstein,
1985). However, with the demise of phrenology, social factors replaced biology as key
CRIMINOLOGY VOLUME2 7 NUMBER4 1989 605
606 SIMPSON
seemed-whether good or bad-could never be like a man.
These observations are not new, but they reflect a different voice, a feminist
voice, that has been added to the criminological discourse. The purpose of
this review essay is to introduce feminist criminology and its intellectual parent,
feminism, to the uninitiated reader. It would be presumptuous to suggest
that all relevant studies and arguments about gender and crime are included
here. Such an extensive review is more appropriate for a book, and depending
on the topic, it has likely already been done and done well (e.g., Eaton,
1986; Freedman, 1981; Heidensohn, 1985; Mann, 1984; Naffine, 1988; Smart,
1976). Instead, illustrative examples of different types of feminist thinking
are presented to show how feminism has reframed our points of reference,
underlying assumptions, and understandings about crime, victimization, and
the justice process.
To achieve these aims, the paper is organized into three sections. First, the
perspectives and methods that constitute feminist analysis are sorted and differentiated.
Second, three areas of criminological study (the female offender,
female victim, and criminal justice processing) are discussed because they are
key areas in which feminist approaches have been incorporated. Third, directions
for further integration are suggested.
FEMINISM: PERSPECTIVES AND METHODS
Feminism is best understood as both a world view and a social movement
that encompasses assumptions and beliefs about the origins and consequences
of gendered social organization as well as strategic directions and actions for
social change. As such, feminism is both analytical and empirical. In its
incipient form, feminist research almost exclusively focused on women-as a
way of placing women at the center of inquiry and building a base of knowledge.
As it has matured, feminism has become more encompassing, taking
into account the gendered understanding of all aspects of human culture and
relationships (Stacey and Thorne, 1985:305).
It would be a mistake, however, to think of feminism as a single theory.
Feminism has expanded into a diverse set of perspectives and agendas, each
based on different definitions of the “problem,” competing conceptions of the
origins and mechanisms of gender inequality/oppression, and divergent strategies
for its eradication. Collectively, these perspectives share a concern with
identifying and representing women’s interests, interests judged to be insufficiently
represented and accommodated within the mainstream (Oakley,
1981:335).
etiological forces. These explanations have not been seriously challenged. Conversely,
until the feminist critique of the 197Os, biogenic/psychogenic models of female crime went,
for the most part, unchallenged.
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 607
LIBERAL FEMINISM
Liberal feminism was conceived within a liberal-bourgeois tradition that
called for women’s equality of opportunity and freedom of choice (Eisenstein,
1981). For the most part, liberal feminists see gender inequality2 emerging
from the creation of separate and distinct spheres of influence and traditional
attitudes about the appropriate role of men and women in society (Pateman,
1987). Such attitudes are reinforced by discrimination against women in education,
the work place, politics, and other public arenas.
Liberals do not believe the system to be inherently unequal; discrimination
is not systemic. Rather, men and women can work together to “androgynize”
gender roles (i.e., blend male and female traits and characteristics;
Bem, 1974) and eliminate outdated policies and practices that discriminate
against women. Affirmative action, the equal rights amendment, and other
equal opportunity laws/policies are advocated as redistributive measures
until a meritocratic gender restructuring of society occurs.
SOCIALIST FEMINISM
For socialists, gender oppression is an obvious feature of capitalist societies.
Depending on whether one is a socialist woman (Marxist-feminist) or a
socialist-feminist, however, the weight that one gives to capitalism as a necessary
and/or sufficient cause of that oppression will vary (Eisenstein, 1979). If
one is the former, gender (and race) oppression is seen as secondary to and
reflective of class oppression.
Socialist-feminists attempt a synthesis between two systems of domination,
class and patriarchy (male supremacy). Both relations of production and
reproduction are structured by capitalist patriarchy (Beauvoir, 1960; Hartmann,
1979; Mitchell, 197 1). Gender. difference, as a defining characteristic
of power and privilege in a capitalist society can only be attacked by constructing
a completely different society, one that is free of gender and class
stratification (Oakley, 1981).
RADICAL FEMINISM
The origins of patriarchy, and the subordination of women therein, are
seen by radical feminists to rest in male aggression and control of women’s
sexuality. Men are inherently more aggressive than women, who, because of
Phillips (1987) argues that the choice of terms describing gender relations imply
particular views of what the problem is. So, inequality (a term favored by liberals and some
women of color) suggests that women deserve what men and/or whites are granted.
Oppression (socialists and women of color) implies a complex combination of forces (ideological,
political, and economic) that keep woman in her place. Subordination is a term
favored by radical feminists and some women of color who identify the holder of power as
the culprit (men and whites respectively).
2.
608 SIMPSON
their relative size disadvantages and dependency on men during child-bearing
years, are easy to dominate and control. The arguments of radical feminists
(e.g., Atkinson, 1974; Barry, 1979; Firestone, 1970; Rich, 1980) bring sexuality
to the analytical fore. The “personal” is “political” (Millett, 1971). Sex
not gender is the crucial analytical category; male domination, not class, is
the fundamental origin of female subordination. Radical feminists’ political
and social agendas encompass lesbian separatism (Atkinson, 1984) and technological
control of reproduction (Firestone, 1970).
WOMEN OF COLOR
In her eloquent “Ain’t I a woman” speech, Sojourner Truth (1851)
informed white suffragists of their myopia about race by highlighting how as
a black woman her experience was different from theirs. Joseph and Lewis
(1981) remind us that Truth’s commentary is no less relevant today. Many
women of color see the women’s liberation movement as hopelessly white and
middle class, immune to their concerns. As Hooks (1987:62) observed,
Most people in the United States think of feminism . . . as a movement
that aims to make women the social equals of men. . . . Since men are
not equals in white supremacist, capitalist, patriarchal class structure,
which men do women want to be equal to?
The alternative frameworks developed by women of color heighten feminism’s
sensitivity to the complex interplay of gender, class, and race oppression.
Patriarchy permeates the lives of minority women, but it does not take
the same form that it does for whites (Brittan and Maynard, 1984). Though
these contributions may not have coalesced yet into a coherent theoretical
framework (at least according to Jagger and Rothenberg, 1984), radical
(Lorde, 1988), socialist (Mullins, 1986), and Marxist (Davis, 1981) women of
color have provided possible points of integration with theories of race
oppression (e.g., Joseph, 1981a, 1981b; Wellman, 1977).
In sum, feminist theory is not one perspective; it is a cacophony of comment
and criticism “concerned with demystifying masculine knowledge as
objective knowledge” (Brittan and Maynard, 1984:2 10) and offering insights
from a women’s perspective.
FEMINIST METHODS
The male epistemological stance, which corresponds to the world it creates,
is objectivity; the ostensibly uninvolved stance, the view from a distance
and from no particular perspective, apparently transparent to its
reality. It does not comprehend its own perspectivity, does not recognize
what it sees as subject like itself, or that the way it apprehends its world
is a form of its subjection and presupposes it (MacKinnon (1982:23-24).
Concern over the nonobjective consequences of so-called objective normal
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 609
science (Kuhn, 1970) has led some feminists to challenge the scientific enterprise.
Keller (1982) arranges these challenges on a political spectrum from
slightly left of center (liberal feminists) to the more radical left. The liberal
critique takes an equal employment opportunity approach by observing the
relative absence of women from the scientific community. This view “in no
way conflicts either with traditional conceptions of science or with current
liberal, egalitarian politics” (p. 114).
From this point, however, the criticisms become increasingly fundamental
to the way knowledge is produced; they range from charges of bias in selecting
research topics and interpreting results to rejecting rationality and objectivity
as purely male products. More radical feminists have adopted a
methodological strategy that is in direct opposition to the scientific method.
In order to “see” women’s existence (which has been invisible to objective
scientific methods) “feminist women must deliberately and courageously integrate
. . . their own experiences of oppression and discrimination . . . into the
research process” (Miles, 1983: 12 1). Feminist methods are necessarily subjectivist,
transdisciplinary, nonhierarchical, and empowering.
Where one falls along Keller’s feminist-political spectrum will determine
one’s choice of methods (i.e., quantitative versus qualitative) and whether one
sees methods and theory as interrelated as opposed to separate and distinct.
Thus, methods used by feminists are more diverse than typically credited (for
examples, see Jayarate, 1983; Reinhartz, 1983; Stacey and Thorne, 1985).
Together, the above theoretical and methodological points form a feminist
perspective. All have been incorporated into criminology, but some have had
a greater impact than others. The goal in the next section is to identify the
ways in which these approaches and methods have changed the way criminologists
address the problems of crime and justice.
INCORPORATING THE FRAMEWORKS
THE FEMALE OFFENDER
The stirrings of feminist criminology are nearly two decades old. Heidensohn
(1968: 17 l), in a “pre-feminist” paper, bemoaned the state of knowledge
about female deviance and called for a “crash programme of research which
telescopes decades of comparable studies of males.” Later, Klein (1973) and
Smart (1976) were to bring explicitly feminist perspectives to their critiques
of extant theoretical and empirical work on the female offender. Klein, a
Marxist-feminist, noted the absence of economic and other social explanations
for female crime. Smart, working within more of a radical feminist perspective,
stressed the linkages among sexist theory, patriarchy, and sexism in
practice-specifically identifying the relationship between stereotypical
assumptions about the causes of female crime and how female offenders are
controlled and treated.
610 SIMPSON
Both Klein and Smart set an agenda for a new feminist criminology, but
their more radical approaches were derailed by the publication of Simon’s
Women and Crime and F. Adler’s Sisters in Crime (1975). Claiming that a
“new” female offender was emerging (white collar and/or male like), Simon
and Adler generated tremendous interest in female crime (a clear aim of
incipient feminism). But, tying the female offender’s emergence to women’s
liberation brought about a “moral panic” (Smart, 1976), which was viewed by
some as a blacklash to the women’s movement.3 In Chesney-Lind’s (1980:29)
words, it represented “another in a century long series of symbolic attempts
to keep women subordinate to men by threatening those who aspire for equality
with the images of the witch, the bitch, and the whore.”4
As with many social problems of our day, female crime became interesting
only when it transcended the expected boundaries of class, race, and gender.
As a “quasi-theory,” the liberation-crime relationship had great appeal for
nonfeminist crimino1ogists.s But tests of the thesis were less than supportive.
In fact most discredited it (Austin, 1982; Giordano et al., 1981), and others
found evidence of a link between female crime and economic marginalization
(Datesman and Scarpitti, 1980; Gora, 1982; Mukherjee and Fitzgerald, 198 1;
Steffensmeier, 1978, 1981; Steffensmeier and Cobb, 1981). The new female
offender identified by Simon and Adler was more myth than reality (Steffensmeier,
1978). These conclusions did not differ substantially from Klein’s
(1973), yet they came years after her original critique-a fact that dramatically
illustrates the marginality of feminist criminology at the time. Yet, subsequent
research on the causes of female crime has clearly buttressed the
economic/class perspectives of Marxist/socialist feminists as well as the
3. The links between women’s liberation and changing patterns of female criminality
were made before. Bishop (1931) complained that women’s liberation during the 1920s had
three negative results: ( I ) more women were turning criminal; (2) a “better” class of
women were becoming criminal more often; and (3) women were becoming sexually criminal
at a younger age (cited in Rasche, 1974).
To be fair, both Simon and Adler had more to offer than mere speculation about
the “dark side” of women’s liberation. Simon’s research documents the basic inequities
between male and female correctional facilities and treatments. By attributing these differences
to male chivalry toward women, she takes a liberal feminist approach to the problem
of gender and justice, an approach that heavily influenced later works in this area. Adler’s
work, while more impressionistic than Simon’s, attempted to explain differences in crime
rates between white and black females. Although her interpretations gave rise to more
systematic examinations of intra-gender race differences in crime that are highly critical of
her interpretations and methods, the issues she raised are of primary importance to most
feminist criminologists today.
A research focus on gender alone does not qualify one as a feminist just as a focus
on class does not make one a marxist. Rather, as part of their endeavor, feminist criminologists
must seriously consider the nature of gender relations and the peculiar brand of
oppression that patriarchal relations bring (Leonard, 1982).
4.
5.
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 61 1
“opportunity” perspectives of the liberal feminists (Ageton, 1983; Box, 1983;
Box and Hale, 1984; Elliott and Ageton, 1980; Giordano et al., 1981).
In retrospect, feminist criminology both gained and lost from the narrow
focus on liberation and crime. On the plus side, we gained a better insight
into the historical (Mukherjee and Fitzgerald, 198 1) and cross-cultural (F.
Adler, 1981; Plenska, 1980) patterns of female crime. But because the liberation
thesis was so limited, it diverted attention from the material and structural
forces that shape women’s lives and experiences. It is in these areas that
women of color and socialist and radical feminist criminologists are more apt
to focus etiological attention (Hagan et al., 1985, 1987; Lewis, 1981; Miller,
1985; Rafter and Natalizia, 1981; Wilson, 1985).
WOMEN VICTIMS: THE RADICAL FEMINIST CRITIQUE
Liberal feminism has dominated studies of the female offender, but the
same is not true of victimology (Daly and Chesney-Lind, 1988). Shifting
away from analyses that blame the victim for her victimization (Amir,
1967),6 radical feminists have constructed alternative interpretations of
offender-victim relationships and victim experiences of criminal justice
(Chapman and Gates, 1978; Klein, 1981; Wood, 1981).
Brownmiller’s (1975) historical and cross-cultural study of rape brought a
radical feminist perspective to the center of public consciousness. Building
on the argument that rape is not a crime of sex but rather an act of power and
dominance (Greer, 1970), Brownmiller concluded that rape is a tool in the
arsenal of all men to control all women.
Radical feminists have reframed the ways in which rape is commonly
understood in our society. Rather than a crime of sex, it is more apt to be
viewed as one of male power, control, and domination. Brownmiller’s work,
coupled with that of other radical feminists (e.g., Griffin, 1979; Riger and
Gordon, 1981), opened a floodgate of inquiry into rape and other types of
victimizations that are “uniquely feminine” (Wilson, 1985:4), such as pornography
(Dworkin, 1981), battering (Dobash and Dobash, 1979; Martin, 1976;
Straus et al., 1980), incest (Finkelhor, 1979; Moyer, 1985; Stanko, 1985) and
sexual harassment (MacKinnon, 1979; Stanko, 1985).
Guiding much of this research is the radical feminist critique of official
conceptions and definitions of violence, which are viewed as male centered
and incapable of incorporating the full range of female experiences of violence
(i.e., from intimidation and coercion to physical violence and death). A
woman-centered definition of violence is one that portrays violence as a form
6. Precipitous behavior has ranged from dressing provacatively, saying no to sex
while “meaning” yes, “nagging” a spouse, Lolita-like seductiveness on the part of the victim,
and so on.
612 SIMPSON
of social domination rather than a random and/or noninstrumental form of
expression (Hanmer, 1981:32).
Radical feminists have dominated but not monopolized feminist perspectives
in this area. Socialist feminists, liberals, and women of color have also
participated in the dialogue. Gordon’s (1988) research of family violence is
implicitly critical of some radical feminists’ overly deterministic conception
of patriarchy. Such an image, she argues, denies agency to women and cannot
incorporate “the chronic conflict, unpredictability, and ambivalent emotions
that have characterized relations between the sexes” (xi-xii).
In another historical study, Tomes (1 978) links variations in spousal abuse
to changes in the economic position of the working class generally and the
male’s position within the family specifically. As the working class improved
its economic position and males cemented greater power within their families,
the official incidence of working-class battering decreased.
Based on her findings, Tomes argues that feminists may need to reconceptualize
the relationship among male power, female economic dependency,
and battering. Dependency is not necessarily tied to greater abuse; in fact,
the opposite may be true. A wife’s economic independence may exert a
greater challenge to male authority within the family, thus creating a climate
in which husbands resort to battering as a means to reestablish their control.
Studies that find great variety in the cross-cultural prevalence and incidence
of rape and battering (e.g., Pagelow, 1981; Sanday, 1981) have forced
feminists to examine patriarchal relations across different societal and situational
arrangements (e.g., Wilson, 1985). If female victimization is a function
of changing the needs of a capitalist/patriarchal system, then male domination
and its relationship to female victimization need not be viewed as inevitable
or immutable.
Around the themes of rape and control of sexuality, patriarchy and racism
marry and divorce in intricate ways (Davis, 1981). In the United States,
white racism and fear gave rise to mythological constructions of black sexuality.
Black males are perceived as sexual threats and have been hunted and
hanged for their “rape potential.” For black victims of rape, the justice process
is not simply gendered-it is racially gendered. Data indicate that blackon-
black rapes are not taken as seriously by authorities as those that involve
white victims (Kleck, 1981; LaFree, 1980). Such findings have led one prominent
black scholar (Joseph, 1981b:27) to comment, “It must be considered
an impossibility for white men to rape Black women in the eyes of justice and
in the minds of many. Black women apparently are considered as something
other than ‘women.’ ”
GENDER AND JUSTICE PROCESSING
A final area to be discussed in this literature review is gendered justice.
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 613
Comedian Richard Pryor once called attention to discrimination in the U.S.
criminal justice system by defining justice as “just us.” His concern with
differential sentencing practices is one shared by feminists who primarily
study the conditions under which criminal justice is gendered and with what
consequences. Although liberal approaches typically dominate the genderand-
justice research, other feminist perspectives are gaining ground-specially
in research on courts and corrections.
There are many stages in the criminal justice system at which gender may
have an impact on decision making. The findings of some of the betterknown
studies of several strategic points in the decision-making process are
summarized below.
POLICE
Arguments about whether and how justice is gendered must begin with
police behavior. That police decisions to arrest can be influenced by extralegal
factors such as the demeanor of the offender (Black, 1980), has been
established. It is less clear how gender, either alone or in conjunction with
other characteristics, may consciously or inadvertently influence police
behavior.
In the liberal “equal treatment” tradition, Moyer and White (1981) test
police bias in response decisions under “probable” responses to hypothetical
situations. Neither gender nor race had an effect on police behavior once
crime type, especially as it interacts with demeanor of the offender, was controlled.
On the other hand, Freyerhern’s (1981) comparison of juvenile male
and female probabilities of transition from self-report incident to police contact
and arrest, finds males to be more likely to incur police contact and arrest
than females. Both of these studies are methodologically problematic, however.
Moyer and White cannot generalize their findings to real police
encounters and Freyerhern (198 1 :90) does not calculate transition probabilities
across individual offense categories, nor does he include status offenses.
Avoiding some of these methodological traps but still working within a liberal
tradition, Visher (1983) finds the interaction between race and gender to
be a key factor influencing arrest decision. Visher finds police chivalry only
toward white females once “legal” factors are controlled. She hypothesizes
that black females are treated more harshly than their white counterparts
because they are less apt to display expected (i.e., traditional) gender behaviors
and characteristics when they encounter a mostly white and male police
force.
Race and gender are also found to interact through victim characteristics
(Smith et al.. 1984). An analysis of 272 police-citizen encounters, in which
both a suspected offender and victim were present, revealed that white female
victims received more preferential treatment from police than black female
614 SIMPSON
victims. Thus, although chivalry may be alive and well for white women, it
appears to be dead (if it ever existed) for blacks.
COURTS
Police contact is not the only point in justice processing at which discrimination
can occur. Women have been found to receive more lenient treatment
in the early stages of court processing (i.e., bail, release on own recognizance,
and/or cash alternatives to bail; I. Nagel, 1983) and further into the process,
e.g., conviction and sentencing (Bernstein et al., 1977; S. Nagel and Weitzman,
1972; Simon, 1975). Other studies find no gender bias when controlling
for crime seriousness and prior record (Farrington and Morris, 1983) or little
effect from extralegal factors when legal factors and bench bias are controlled
(I. Nagel, 1983). Variation in sentencing may be related to so-called countertype
offenses, that is, women are treated more harshly when processed for
nontraditional female crimes, like assault (Bernstein et al., 1977; S. Nagel and
Weitzman, 1972), or when they violate female sexual norms (Chesney-Lind,
1973; Schlossman and Wallach, 1978). Given variable-specification
problems, however, some of these findings are potentially spurious.
Once again, race may confound these effects. Spohn et al. (1982) address
the issue of paternalism in sentencing, especially for black women. Controlling
for prior record and attorney type, they found that black women are
incarcerated significantly less often than black men, but about as often as
white men. They conclude that the apparently lenient treatment of black
women is not due to paternalism in their favor but rather to the racial discrimination
against black vis-a-vis white men.
Studies of court processing are not entirely dominated by liberal perspectives.
More critical perspectives emphasize social power and patriarchal control
as the primary mechanisms through which justice is gendered
(Kruttschnitt, 1982, 1984). Eaton (1986:35) argues that magistrate courts in
Great Britain (the lower courts) reinforce the dominant imagery of justice
(i.e., courts are ostensibly fair and just) while they maintain the status quo:
“It is in these courts that the formal rules of society-the laws-are endorsed;
it is here, too, that the informal, unwritten rules regulating social relations
[e.g., gender, class, and race] are re-enacted.’’
When are females apt to be subjected to formal mechanisms of control?
When other, more informal, constraints are lacking or disrupted.
Kruttschnitt (1982, 1984) suggests that sentencing outcomes are affected by a
woman’s social status and/or her respectability. Differential sentencing
among women is tied to the degree to which women are subjected to formal
versus informal social control in their everyday lives.
Daly (1987a, 1989b) and Eaton (1986, 1987) offer convincing evidence that
the most important factor determining sentence outcome, once prior record
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 615
and offense seriousness are controlled, is marital and/or familial status.’
Marital status.has been found to matter for women (married receive more
lenient sentences) but not for men (Farrington and Morris, 1983; I. Nagel,
1981) or to be as important for both (Daly, 1987a, 1987b).
Pretrial release and sentencing are seen to be both “familied” and
“gendered.” They are familied in that court decisions regarding the removal
of men and women from families “elicit different concerns from the court”
(Daly 1987a:154). They are gendered in that women’s care of others and
male economic support for families represent “different types of dependencies
in family life” (p. 154). Men and women without family responsibilities are
treated similarly, but more harshly than familied men and women. Women
with families, however, are treated with the greatest degree of leniency due to
“the differing social costs arising from separating them from their families”
(Daly, 1987b3287). The economic role played by familied men can, more easily,
be covered by state entitlement programs, but it is putatively more difficult
to replace the functional role of familied women. Judges rationalize such
sentencing disparities as necessary for keeping families together (Daly,
1989b).
As these latter studies suggest, much of the observed gender bias in
processing may not be a case of overt discrimination for or against women
relative to men. Instead, judicial decisions may be influenced by broader societal
concerns about protecting nuclear families (Daly, 1989b) and the differing
roles and responsibilities contained therein (Eaton, 1986). It is not clear
that such forms of justice are overtly paternalistic, nor are they necessarily
racist. Rather, in a society that stratifies other rights and privileges by gender,
race, and class, “equality” in sentencing may not be just (Daly, 1989a).
Eaton (1986: 10-1 1) takes a somewhat different view of familied justice. In
her opinion, the courts reflect the needs and interests of patriarchy and capitalism,
in which attendant inequities are reproduced. “Family-based” justice
is a visible manifestation of the patriarchal and capitalist need to maintain
and protect the nuclear family-within which gender and productive/reproductive
relations first emerge.
CORRECTIONS
As it became clear that, compared with males, female prisoners were
treated differently (in some cases more leniently and in others more harshly),
liberal feminist perspectives came to dominate research questions and policy
considerations (see, Haft, 1980; Heide, 1974; Simon, 1975).
The linkages between female incarceration and male control of female sexuality
are developed by radical feminists (Chesney-Lind, 1973; Smart, 1976).
Rasche (1 974), for example, describes how prostitutes with venereal disease
7. These effects appear to be strongest for black defendants (Daly, 1989a).
616 SIMPSON
were prosecuted and institutionalized, with the “cure” as a condition of
release. Nondiseased prostitutes were less likely to go to jail or prison. Certain
prison practices, such as checking for evidence of a hymen during forced
physical examinations and vaginal contraband searches, have been used as
techniques to control the sexuality of youthful offenders and to humiliate and
degrade female inmates (Burkhart, 1973; Chesney-Lind, 1986).
Socialist feminists emphasize how prison tenure and treatment vary by
class and race (Freedman, 1981; French, 1977, 1978; Lewis, 1981; Rafter,
1985). In her historical accounting of the development of women’s prisons,
Rafter (1985155) observes how race determined whether and where a woman
was sent to prison.
Comparison of incarceration rates and in-prison treatment of black
women and white women demonstrates that partiality was extended
mainly to whites. Chivalry filtered them out of the prison system, helping
to create the even greater racial imbalances among female than male
prisoner populations. And partiality toward whites contributed to the
development of a bifurcated system, one track custodial and predominantly
black, the other reformatory and reserved mainly for whites.
The bifurcated system of women’s corrections emerges in part from two
competing images of female nature. In one view, women are seen as fragile
and immature creatures, more childlike than adult. Consequently, the female
offender is perceived as a “fallen woman,” in need of guidance but not a true
danger to society (Rasche, 1974). The reformatory is perfectly suited to such
an offender. Primarily staffed by reform-minded middle-class women,
reformatory training programs emphasized skills that would turn the white,
working-class misdemeanants into proper (and class-appropriate) women,
that is, good servants or wives (Rafter, 1985:82).
In custodial prisons, however, a different archetype dominated. Women’s
“dark side,” their inherent evil and immorality (Smart, 1976) shaped prison
philosophy. Here, the predominantly black felons (who were perceived as
more masculine, more self-centered, volatile, and dangerous) were treated
like men-only, given the conditions of their incarceration (i.e., fewness of
numbers and at the mercy of violent male offenders), their equality was tantamount
to brutal treatment and often death (Rafter, 1985:181).
The degree to which prisons function as something other than just places of
punishment and/or treatment is a popular theme in neo-Marxist literature.
Extending this interpretation to women, Marxist-feminists (e.g., Wilson,
1985; Hartz-Karp, 1981) argue that prisons, like other institutions of social
control (e.g., mental health facilities), retool deviant women for genderappropriate
roles in capitalist patriarchal societies:
If deviant women are more frequently assigned to the mental health system
for social control than to the criminal justice system, it is perhaps
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 617
because of the superior ability of the mental health system to “re-tool”
worn-out or rebellious domestic workers. (Wilson, 1985: 18)
Societal control of female deviance serves the needs of capital. When those
needs change, so too will the mechanisms and directions of social control.8
In this vein, Carlen (1983) demonstrates how “down, out and disordered”
women in Scotland are disciplined through medical and judicial apparatuses.
Most of the imprisoned are poor women; many have histories of alcohol and
drug abuse, and a large number come from violent homes. These life experiences
combine, setting into motion a cycle of deviance, imprisonment, and
patriarchal and class discipline that is tenacious and defeating:
Being seen as neither wholly mad nor wholly bad, [women] are treated to
a disciplinary regime where they are actually infantalised at the same
time as attempts are made to make them feel guilty about their double,
triple, quadruple, or even quintuple refusal of family, work, gender,
health, and reason (Carlen, 1983:209).
WHERE TO GO FROM HERE?
In 1976, Carol Smart suggested a number of topics for feminist research.9
A decade later, feminist criminology has amassed a considerable body of
knowledge in most of these areas-so much so in fact that feminists now are
more self-critical-especially in the areas of policy and legislative changes
(see Daly and Chesney-Lind, 1988). This is a positive step. It suggests not
only that a feminist voice is being heard, but that it is loud enough to produce
disagreement and intellectual exchange. Nonetheless, certain areas in criminology
either have been underexposed or are resistant to feminist concerns.
Thus, some new directions for feminist criminology are discussed below.10
RACE AND CRIME
Poorly conceived offender self-report surveys provided criminologists with
the empirical justification to ignore the race-crime relationship, and the prevailing
political climate reinforced our myopia. There is enormous risk in
ignoring that relationship, however. First, based on more sophisticated crime
Cloward and Piven (1979) and Box (1983) assert that female deviance is handled
by the medical community, in part, because women are more likely to direct their deviance
inward (i.e., they privatize it into self-destructive behaviors, like depression and suicide).
Such behavior is conceptualized as sickness (like “hysteria” earlier) and is thus subject to
the formal control of the psychiatric community.
The relevant topics are the female offender and the attitudes of criminal justice
personnel toward her; criminal justice processing; gender and corrections; and the structure
and purpose of law.
To suggest that feminists need to identify areas “appropriate” for feminist critique
implies that knowledge, as currently constructed, is selectively androcentric. I would argue
that criminology as a whole, like other academic disciplines, needs a feminist “overhaul.”
8.
9.
10.
618 SIMPSON
measures (e.g., National Youth Survey, National Crime Survey, cohort studies),
it is clear that the race-crime relationship is an essential one. Second,
and not unlike the gender-crime relationship, such reticence leaves the interpretive
door open to less critical perspectives.
Feminist criminologists have great potential in this area, but the data are
sparse and problematic and the analytic contributions few. Too often we rely
on quantitative studies that dichotomize race into white and black, or the
nonwhite category is broadened to include groups other than blacks (see, e.g.,
Tracy et al., in press). In the former instance, other ethnichacia1 groups are
ignored; in the latter, such inclusive categorizations assume etiological and
historical/cultural invariance between groups.
Clearly, one of the first places for feminists to start is to target women of
color for greater research. Available data indicate that there are significant
differences between black and white female crime rates (Ageton, 1983;
Chilton and Datesman, 1987; Hindelang, 1981; Laub and McDermott, 1985;
Mann, 1987; Young, 1980). Simpson (1988), Miller (1985), and Lewis (1981)
argue that the unique structural and cultural positioning of black women produces
complex cultural typescripts that exert push-pull pressures for crime,
pressures that may not exist for white women.
Miller’s (1985: 177-178) ethnography of lower-class deviant networks
describes how certain types of male and female criminality (e.g., hustling,
pimping, and other instrumental crimes) are interdependent in minority communities.
Female crime also appears to have a group-directed and -enacted
dimension (see Young, 1980). The collective nature of such minority offending
may stem from the fact that it emerges, in part, from the integrated and
extended domestic networks of underclass blacks (Miller, 1985) and from
joint participation in gang activities (Campbell, 1984).
These observations do not imply, however, that patriarchy is absent from
these communities. Male dominance and control are reproduced within
interpersonal relationships (not necessarily familial) and embodied in informal
organizations, like gangs (Campbell, 1984) and state social service agencies.
Some female offending can be interpreted as challenging patriarchal
control and asserting independence (Campbell, 1984: 135); much can be
attributed to both economic necessity and the pull and excitement of street
life (Campbell, 1984; Miller, 1985). Female participation in violent crime
may stem from abusive relationships between men and women (Browne,
1987; Mann, 1987) and/or the frustration, alienation, and anger that are associated
with racial and class oppression (Simpson, 1988).
Research by Hill and Suva1 (1988) suggests that the causes of crime may
differ for black and white women, which raises questions about whether current
theories of female crime, including feminist perspectives, are whitefemale
centered. Given the paucity of data on how gender structures relationships
within minority communities and families, it is impossible to say.
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 619
More quantitative research is needed on minority groups other than blacks
(e.g., Chicanos and other Hispanics, Asians, Native Americans) to establish a
better knowledge base, but qualitative studies that probe culture and subjective
differences between women of color and whites are also essential (Mullins,
1986). Feminist criminologists are guilty of the “add race and stir”
shortsightedness that pervades feminist thinking. We would do well to heed
Spelman’s (1988:166) reminder of how to understand and approach differences
among women:
If we assume there are differences among women, but at the same time
they are all the same as women, and if we assume the woman part is
what we know from looking at the case of white middle-class women,
then we appear to be talking only about white middle-class women. This
is how white middle-class privilege is maintained even as we purport to
recognize the importance of women’s differences.
ELITE CRIME
In 1977, Harris admonished criminologists for their failure to use “the sex
variable” as the empirical building block for all theories of criminal deviance.
Apparently (though not surprisingly) this was interpreted to apply only to
street crime. The entire area of white-collar, corporate, and organizational
crime has not been examined from a feminist perspective.
Officially, women are underrepresented in white-collar crime data although
recent Bureau of Justice Sfatistics (1987) data suggest that women have made
inroads into this formerly male domain. Similar claims are made regarding
female penetration of the upper reaches of organized crime (Simpson, 1987).
Yet, Daly (1988) finds neither the crime types nor the offenders themselves to
be particularly elite.
Much of our information on female participation in organized crime is
anecdotal, derived from the nonsystematic observations of male crime participants.
Consequently, there has been little systematic research on women’s
penetration of and mobility within illicit markets. The official data on corporate
and other white-collar offending are equally problematic (see Reiss and
Biderman, 1980). Given that both the data and interpretation/theory in
these areas are suspect, feminist researchers must first develop an empirical
base with which to answer the following types of questions. Is elite crime a
male domain (Steffensmeier, 1983)? What are the motivations and characteristics
of women who do participate (Daly, 1988; Zietz, 1981)? How are they
similar and different from male offenders (P. Adler, 1985; Block, 1977; Simpson,
1987)? What explains the official increase in female participation in
white-collar offenses?
At this point, feminists have barely scratched the surface of the elite crime
620 SIMPSON
area. Daly (1988) is providing some direction, but much more needs to be
done.
DETERRENCE
Gender confounds the anticipated relationship between objective sanction
risks and criminal activity, that is, given that female sanction risks are low,
women should have high rates of law breaking. Yet, as virtually all measures
of crime document, the exact opposite is true. This empirical relationship has
left deterrence theorists scrambling to make sense of the inconsistency.
Richards and Tittle (1 98 1 : 183-1 85) argue that there are at least five lines of
reasoning that would predict that women perceive higher levels of risk than
do men. Using measures derived from these hypotheses, they find two variables,
stakes in conformity and perceptions of visibility, to be highly associated
with gender differences in perceived chances of arrest:
Women may think that legal sanction is relatively certain because they
are more likely to think of themselves as subject to surveillance and general
social sanctions than are men. Their greater relative stakes in conformity
may make deviance more threatening for them, and lead to high
sanction risk estimates (p. 196).
The social control literature, in general, characterizes female conformity in a
stereotypical manner. Conforming females are seen as passive, compliant,
and dependent. Instead, Naffine (1988: 13 1) suggests that the conforming
women be seen as “involved and engrossed in conventional life. But . . . also
actively concerned about the effects of her behavior on her loved ones, particularly
emotionally and financially dependent children.” (Naffine is especially
critical of Hagan et al., 1979, 1985, 1987.)
Naffine’s image of conformity is partially influenced by Gilligan’s (1982)
work in moral development theory. Gilligan’s research discovers that men
and women use “a different voice” when they talk about moral responsibility.
If the moral calculus of reasoning about crime is different between men and
women, Gilligan may have identified a new way of conceptualizing gender
differences in (1) perceived threat of sanction and (2) male-female crime rates.
According to her theory, men often make moral decisions based on an “ethic
of justice,” while women employ a model of decision making based on an
“ethic of care.” The former is a more abstract model, expressed as a set of
principles defining rights and rules (e.g., Kohlberg, 1981). In the latter, decisions
are governed by “a psychological logic of relationships, which contrasts
with the formal logic of fairness that informs the justice approach” (Gilligan,
1 9 82:73).
A woman’s decision to violate the law will depend on her definition of the
moral domain (i.e., how will my act affect those around me, those who count
FEMINIST THEORY, CRIME, AND JUSTICE 62 1
on me). It is not surprising that in some deterrence studies (Finley and Grasmick,
1985) women score significantly higher than men on measures of internalized
guilt. Because women are responsible for the care of relationships,
any act that may result in their removal from that role is apt to produce a
tremendous sense of guilt. Guilt may be negated if the needs of the family
(for food or other valued items) outweigh the “immorality” of breaking the
law to obtain them or if others are available to take on the responsibilities of
care.
Gilligan’s theory can be used to explain why most women do not violate
the law and why they score higher on most measures of deterrence. It can
also explain class and race differences in female crime rates. Lower-class and
minority women are more apt to find themselves in situations that require a
renegotiation of the moral domain and, given their kinship networks, they
have a greater chance of finding care substitutes (Miller, 1985). Not surprisingly,
Finley and Grasmick (1985) report that blacks score lower on certainty
and severity of guilt than their white counterparts.
Some critics suggest that Gilligan’s findings are biased (she interviewed
mostly middle-class students) or that they may be a function of subordinate
female social position, not real differences in ethical philosophies (Tronto,
n.d.). These are important criticisms that must be addressed before we proceed
too enthusiastically. Gilligan’s conceptualization of differences in gender-
based moral reasoning, however, are an important contribution and
warrant further research.
CONCLUSION
Feminist criminology has changed dramatically since Klein (1 973) and
Smart (1976) first called attention to it. Replicating the same political and
analytical development as the broader feminist movement, feminist contributions
to the study of crime and justice began with more liberal approaches
and have recently been giving way to more radical critiques. Liberal feminist
dominance rests, in part, in ideological coherence-these approaches correspond
closely with the ideas and beliefs embodied in most capitalist democracies.
Thus, liberalism in any form is less threatening and more acceptable
than a feminism that questions white, male, and/or capitalist privilege. 1 1
Additionally, liberal feminists speak in the same voice as a majority of social
scientists, that is, they are rational, objective, and (typically) quantitative.
Consequently, their data and interpretations carry more weight within the
scientific community and among their peers.
11. Stacey and Thorne (1985:308) argue that more radical feminist thinking has been
marginalized-ghettoized within Marxist sociology, which ensures that feminist thinking
has less of a chance to influence mainstream sociological paradigms and research.
622 SIMPSON
Though 1iberaVquantitative approaches offer important insights into gender
as a “variable” problem (Stacey and Thorne, 1985), criminologists need
to be more ecumenical in studying gendered society. If we emphasize qualitative
(e.g., Campbell, 1984; Carlen, 1986; Eaton, 1986; Miller, 1985), historical
(Gordon, 1988; Freedman, 1981; Rafter, 1985), and subjectivist (Stacey and
Thorne, 1985) approaches in addition to quantitative, the detail and texture
of how crime and justice are gendered will lead to richer theory and better
criminology.
There are areas in criminology into which feminists have only marginally
ventured or in which their contributions have been of little consequence. In
their review of feminist criminology, Daly and Chesney-Lind (1988512-5 13)
discuss the problems that feminists have had building and developing theories
of female crime. It is not coincidental that the areas targeted for further
research in this paper (e.g., race and crime, elite crime, and deterrence) all
focus on this problematic area. Until we can better deal with the empirical
complexities of criminal offending, it will be too easy for our critics to dismiss
feminist contributions to the study of crime as facile, rhetorical, and/or
atheoretical.
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ethical dimensions of decision-making.

The methodology of the Meditations: tradition and innovation.

christia mercer
1 The methodology of the
Meditations: tradition
and innovation
Descartes intended to revolutionize seventeenth-century philosophy
and science. But first he had to persuade his contemporaries of the
truth of his ideas. Of all his publications, Meditations on First
Philosophy is methodologically the most ingenuous. Its goal is to
provoke readers, even recalcitrant ones, to discover the principles of
“first philosophy.” The means to its goal is a reconfiguration of traditional
methodological strategies. The aim of this chapter is to display
the methodological stratagem of the Meditations. The text’s method
is more subtle and more philosophically significant than has generally
been appreciated.
Descartes’ most famous work is best understood as a response to
four somewhat separate philosophical concerns extant in the seventeenth
century. The first section describes these. The second section
discusses how Descartes uses and transforms them. A clearer sense of
theMeditations’methodological strategy provides a better understanding
of exactly how Descartes intended to revolutionize seventeenth century
thought.1
early modern methodology: tradition
and innovation
In order to understand the methodological brilliance of the Meditations,
we need to recognize both its continuity and discontinuity
with earlier philosophical traditions and its clear-headed response to
difficulties of the period. Scholars have long noted Descartes’
Augustinianism, skepticism, anti-Aristotelianism, Platonism, and
interest in the tradition of religious meditation. For each of these
traditions, a strong argument has been made that it was a main
23
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inspiration for his thought.2 In fact, Descartes borrowed heavily from
all of them. This should not come as a surprise. The early seventeenth
century is teeming with philosophical options from which philosophers
casually borrowed and whose boundaries were porous. Like so
many of his contemporaries, Descartes picked and chose ideas that
suited his purpose at the moment, blending them together to solve
the problem at hand.
In this section, I survey the traditions that formed Descartes’
intellectual milieu and from which he drew. They help us see the
Meditations as traditional and innovative. They are as follows.
The Search for Stability
The Europe of Descartes’ youth was a period of religious, political,
and philosophical instability. It contained a startling array of philosophical
options and eager zealots passionately arguing against one
another. The Protestant reformers had splintered into warring factions,
and the Counter-Reformation was in full swing. The period is
packed with people bemoaning the falsities and misunderstandings
around them while claiming the power of truth.3 The English philosopher
and statesman Francis Bacon exemplifies this attitude. In an
essay published in 1597, entitled “Of Truth,” he discusses “the
Difficultie, and Labour, which Men take in finding out of Truth.”
He warns that falsities and lies corrupt the mind when they “sinketh”
and “setleth in it.” But he avers that despite the human capacity for
“depraved Judgments, and Affections, yet Truth which onely doth
judge it self, teacheth, that the Inquirie of Truth, which is the Lovemaking,
or Wooing of it” and the understanding “of Truth, which is
the Presence of it, . . . is the Sovereign Good of human Nature.”
Indeed, “no pleasure is comparable, to the standing, upon the vantage
ground of Truth.”4
Platonism
Descartes was willing to use any material at hand to create, in Bacon’s
words, a “vantage ground” for truth. Fifteenth- and sixteenth-century
humanists had often woven together quotations and ideas explicitly
drawn from ancient philosophical schools and many believed that,
whatever their apparent differences, these traditions could be made
24 christia mercer
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to cohere.5 It is no wonder that, by the early seventeenth century, the
boundaries of philosophical schools had become porous and sectarian
categories unclear.
Descartes insists that he does not intend to build his system
explicitly out of the ideas of Plato or Aristotle. He makes this point
in The Search for Truth: “I hope too that the truths I set forth will not
be less well received for their not being derived from Aristotle or
Plato” (AT 10: 498). But this attitude toward the explicit use of
ancient ideas is consistent with drawing heavily from the rich philosophical
traditions available to him. Descartes suggests as much
when he explains,
everything in my philosophy is old. For as far as principles are concerned,
I only accept those which in the past have always been common ground
among all philosophers without exception, and which are therefore the
most ancient of all. Moreover, the conclusions I go on to deduce are already
contained and implicit in these principles, and I show this so clearly as to
make it apparent that they too are very ancient, in so far as they are naturally
implanted in the human mind. (Letter to Father Dinet, AT 7: 580)6
The main point I want to make here in relation to Descartes is that
Platonism was ubiquitous in the early modern period. Because
Platonist doctrines were interpreted in radically different ways in
the fifteenth, sixteenth, and seventeenth centuries and because
early modern thinkers were happy to combine ideas from diverse
sources, the task of identifying and then tracing the divergent paths
of Platonism through the period is virtually impossible. The designation
‘Platonism’ is frustratingly vague although various strands and
loosely connected doctrines can be associated with the term.7 With
this vagueness in mind,we can turn to the “Platonisms” of Descartes’
intellectual milieu. They derive from three main sources.
First, when the Aristotelian Latin texts and ideas were imported to
Europe from the Arab world in the thirteenth century, they were
steeped in Platonism. Scholasticism resulted from the blending of
Platonized Aristotelianism and medieval Christianity, which itself
had Platonist roots. Thus, despite the philosophical subtlety of scholastic
thinkers and despite their commitment to the Philosopher,
they unknowingly promulgated a wide range of Platonist ideas,
about the soul, the intellect, and the relation between the divinity
and the world.8
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Asecondmajor source of earlymodern Platonismis Augustinianism.
The philosophy of Augustine laid the groundwork for medieval
Christianity in the fifth century and set the stage for the reformations
of Christianity that occurred a thousand years later.9 Luther himself
emphasized the importance and profundity of Augustine’s thought, as
did Counter-Reformation theologians. For example, the important
French Catholic Antoine Arnaud wrote to Descartes that “the divine
Augustine” is a “man of the most acute intellect, and entirely admirable
not only in theology but also in philosophical matters.”10 When early
modern reformers and Catholic counter-reformers turned to Augustine
for inspiration, they were absorbing Platonist ideas.
Italian Renaissance thinkers who translated and interpreted Plato’s
works constitute the third source for early modern Platonism. At the
beginning of the fifteenth century, few thinkers in the Latin west had
access to more than a couple of Plato’s dialogues;11 by the end of the
century, thanks to Marsilio Ficino’s translations and editions, all of
“the divine Plato’s” workswere in print.12 Not only did Ficino produce
the first Latin translation of Plato, his commentaries and interpretations
form the materials for all of early modern Platonism. And the
awkward truth about Ficino’s Platonism is that it owes as much to
the thought of Plotinus, whose works he also translated, as to Plato
himself.13
Search for a New Philosophy
In the decades leading up to Descartes’ Meditations, Europe was full
of philosophers trying to replace Aristotelianism. Whether the ideas
were based on the ancient philosophies of thinkers like Democritus,
Lucretius, and Epicurus or were newly formed, the goal was to forge a
new account of the world. Each of these competing philosophies had
to find a way to convince readers of its truth. The rhetoric was often
flamboyant. To cite one such prominent example, Galileo provokes
his readers to accept his proposals as follows:
Philosophy is written in this grand book, the universe, which stands continually
open to our gaze. But the book cannot be understood unless one first
learns to comprehend the language and read the letters in which it is composed.
It is written in the language of mathematics, and its characters are
triangles, circles, and other geometric figures without which it is humanly
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impossible to understand a single word of it; without these, one wanders
about in a dark labyrinth.14
This passage from The Assayer is so often quoted that it is easy to
overlook Galileo’s threat: either the reader will follow him and learn
to read the language of “the book of nature” or be forever lost in a dark
labyrinth.15
Medieval Meditations
When Descartes chose to present his first philosophy in the form of a
meditation, he was doing something provocative: he was placing
himself and his proposals in a tradition going back to Augustine’s
Confessions of 397–98 CE and announcing as much to his early
modern readers. In order to recognize the fascinating ways in which
Descartes uses and transforms the meditative discourse, we need to
know more about it. In this subsection, I summarize the meditative
tradition that began with Augustine and developed in important ways
in the late medieval and early modern period, and that formed a
crucial part of Descartes’ education.16
In Cotgrave’s French–English dictionary published in 1611, the
English given for the French meditation is: “a deep consideration,
careful examination, studious casting, or devising of things in the
mind.”17 The history of Christianity contains an evolving set of
spiritual exercises where the point is to acknowledge the divinity
deep within oneself and devise a mental process to find it.18 For
many Christians, the underlying assumption is that we must learn
how to turn our attention away from ourselves and on to God. In a
striking passage, the Gospel of Mark has Jesus claim: “If any want to
become my followers, let them deny themselves and take up their
cross and follow me.”19 For Paul and many other early Christians, our
sinful nature makes this turning to God impossible without the
direct help of Jesus Christ. Paul summarizes the point succinctly:
“just as sin came into the world through one man,” so “through the
one man, Jesus Christ,” we “receive the abundance of grace” so that
we might be “set free” from sin (Romans 5: 12–17; 6: 7).
Augustine of Hippo (354–430) is the single most influential meditator
in the history of philosophy. Deeply moved by the epistemological
pessimism of Paul, the Confessions contains the remarkable
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story of his decades-long effort to find ultimate truth and attain
enlightenment. After years of struggle, Augustine realized that his
corrupt nature could not find enlightenment on its own: “But from
the disappointment I suffered I perceived that the darknesses of my
soul would not allow me to contemplate these sublimities.”20
Rather, “wretched humanity” will remain in darkness without the
direct help of Jesus Christ. As this radical epistemological claim is
put in the Gospel of Matthew, “no one knows the Father except the
Son and anyone to whom the Son chooses to reveal him” (Matthew,
11: 27). For hundreds of years after Augustine, the direct help of
Jesus was considered a requisite for knowledge of the most significant
truths about God and the human soul. Only when such divine help
was conferred on the believer could there be the right “turning
around” or conversion. Spiritual exercises developed to encourage
self-improvement and increase the chances of attaining divine help.
Their point was to teach meditators how to “take up the cross” and
ready themselves for illumination. For the vast majority of medieval
Christians, the final step in self-improvement required the intervention
of Jesus Christ.
After generations of meditative practices based loosely on
Augustinian ideas, the twelfth century witnessed a flourishing of
systematic meditative treatises. Written from the first-person perspective,
these spiritual exercises contain detailed steps about how to
prepare to receive divine help.21 The author of such a meditation
counsels the creation of a receptive state of mind through prayer
and/or attention to one’s unworthy soul and then makes precise
recommendations on how, when, and where to meditate. The main
point is usually to learn to identify with Christ, especially with his
sufferings, and to avoid temptations, demonic and otherwise. The
striking thing about these “affective meditations” is that, as a recent
study shows, they “ask their readers to imagine themselves present
at scenes of Christ’s suffering and to perform compassion for that
suffering victim in a private drama of the heart.” These writings “had
serious, practical work to do: to teach their readers, through iterative
affective performance, how to feel.”22
This tradition of spiritual meditation developed in close proximity
with the rise of scholasticism. Meditative exercises absorbed philosophical
terms and nuance. Authors came to explicate meditative
steps in terms of the faculties of memory, imagination, intellect, and
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will. The faculty of imagination became particularly important in
affective meditations, where the goal was to imagine the emotional
reality ofChrist’s sufferings as vividly as possible so as to elicit the right
affect. Somemeditations contain instructions for howtomeditate over
a short period of time; others would be used throughout a year.
Early Modern Meditations
The Reformation changed the course of meditative practices. After
the reformers rejected the sanctity of saints and demanded a reconsideration
of their role in spiritual life, there was a general reconsideration
of meditative practices. The Catholic theologians at the Council
of Trent (1545–1564), in the words of one scholar, “shaped new models
of spiritual accomplishment.”23 Before the Reformation, saints
were considered to be direct interveners in the lives of believers.
Believers prayed to saints for help. After Trent, saints became paragons
of spirituality, offering lessons on how to live a proper life.
Against the Protestant reformers who took Biblical study to be a
sufficient means to salvation, Catholic meditations used saints as
inspirational.24
In this context, it is not surprising that sixteenth-century spiritual
leaders offered imaginative reformulations of spiritual exercises.
The Catholic church moved quickly to canonize post-Reformation
spiritual advisers like Ignatius of Loyola (1491–1556) and Teresa
of Ávila (also called ‘Teresa of Jesus’ (1515–1582)). Ignatius himself
grounded the proper religious life in an education that included a
rigorous pedagogy mixed with meditative exercises. The Jesuits
founded schools and universities around the world including
the one Descartes attended in La Flèche. During Descartes’ youth,
Teresa of Ávila was enormously popular for her humble and
poignant reflections on the proper Christian life and the means to
illumination.25
As this brief history of post-Augustinian meditations suggests, it
has dramatic phases and moving parts. The popularity of new spiritual
exercises and the Catholic commitment to the role of saints in
spiritual development inspired hundreds of early modern meditative
manuals. To be sure, the traditional spiritual exercise persisted, but
there quickly developed variations on that tradition and many new
meditative modes, including many written by Protestants. In order to
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discern the rhetorical subtlety in Descartes’ Meditations on First
Philosophy, it is important to see it as a clever negotiation of this
diverse literary landscape.26
I would like to offer a few brief examples of that diversity. The
meditations summarized here represent the heterogeneity of early
seventeenth-century meditative options. For our purposes, the most
important differences among early modern meditations are in the
goal of the exercise, the faculties and other elements that contribute
to that goal, the power of demons to distract from it, and the role of
the author in relation to the reader and to God.
I begin with an early seventeenth-century commentary on a canonical
medieval meditation on the passions of Christ. The English title
of the work expresses a good deal about its goal: Saint Bernard, his
Meditations: or Sighes, Sobbes, and Teares, upon our Saviours [sic]
Passion. The text contains a translation of major parts of Bernard of
Clairvaux’s (1090–1153) twelfth-century meditation, but it doesmore
than that. “To the Reader” explains: “these divine and comfortable
Meditations on the Lords Passion, and Motives to Mortification . . .
[are] selected out of the workes of S. Bernard, and other ancient
Writers, not verbally turned into English, but augmented with such
other Meditations, as it pleased God to infuse into my minde.”27 As a
divinely inspired commentary on Biblical passages about the passions,
relying on earlier Christian canonical writings, the work is
full of direct proclamations to God and to the soul: “Learn therefore
(oh my soule) to imitate the blessed Savior.”28 The book’s goal is to
engage the reader to meditate on the sacrifice and sufferings of Christ
in order that the reader’s soul might learn to imitate him.
In 1607, Antonius Dulcken published a book entitled A Golden
Book, On Meditation and Prayer, which is an edition and translation
(into Latin) of an important Spanish work by Pedro de Alcántara (1515–
82). The latter had become famous in the late sixteenth century partly
because he had been the spiritual adviser to Teresa of Ávila and partly
because hewas frequently seen to levitate in his cell. He was canonized
in 1669. Pedro de Alcántara’s Meditations nicely captures the point of
many affective meditations: “Meditation is nothing other than the
means to use our imagination to make ourselves present. . . in the life
and passion of Christ.”29 But Pedro de Alcántara also emphasizes the
role of the intellect, acknowledging that some “meditations require
the intellect more.”30 The Dedicatory Letter that Dulcken wrote for
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his edition exemplifies the Tridentine emphasis on saintly lives and an
underlying epistemological optimism based on them. He explains that
all people contain “the seeds of virtue in our souls,” which only need to
be properly nourished. Because saints have “supernatural affections,”
they encourage human hearts “to grow” in the right way.31
Carlo Scribani, a Jesuit, published a book in 1616, entitled Divine
Love. Although it has the structure and focus of a traditional meditation,
this very long and very odd work asks the reader to focus
on the passions of Christ with the goal of immortality. Scribani
concedes in his nearly 600-page work that one of the main difficulties
in igniting “the flame of divine love” is that humans are weak and
that demons provoke that weakness.32 He asks: “Where are you my
love? . . . You are not in the bread, or in the virgin milk . . . or in the
cross or the sword.”33 He insists that by focusing on the nature of
divine love, we can overcome all difficulties. He speaks erotically of
the love between Mary and Christ and between Christ and his followers.
According to Scribani, this love “inebriates us,” causes “a
stream of tears,” and “creates torrents of love.”34
A huge two-volume Meditations on the Mysteries of our Holy
Faith, published in 1636, marks a shift in the power of the intellect
and the role of education in meditative exercise. This work, by
the Spanish Jesuit, Luis de la Puente (1554–1624), is a grand and
thoroughly scholastic treatment of topics common to meditations.
For example, the second treats the “mysteries of the passions”
and the resurrection, before moving to the trinity and then to “the
most perfect attributes” of God. The text cites Aquinas and other
“Scholastic Doctors” in an attempt to give “a rational account” of
conflicting views about the mysteries. The hope here is to create a
“fount of spiritual science [scientia].”35 The frontispiece of the book
summarizes its approach: the author sits in his priestly robes with a
crucifix on one side and a pile of books on the other.
Earlymodern spiritual meditations differed significantly in terms of
points of emphasis and modes of presentation. Consider, for example,
Philipp Camerarius’ Historical Meditations of 1603. The point of this
huge, two-volume work in French, is to show that the history of
philosophy is full of diverse ways to purify “the heart” and approach
God. Camerarius’ work does not fit any of themodels usually offered of
earlymodernmeditations. It is not itself ameditation, in the sense that
it does not ask the reader to meditate, and it appears to suppose that
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we do not require God’s direct assistance in accessing fundamental
truths. Rather, it begins with the assumption that there are different
ways of coming to God and different ways of purifying one’s heart;36 it
then sets about discussing those historical figures who presented “vain
and useless efforts” and those who offered help in attaining a “true
heart.”37 Although Camerarius is critical of many philosophers, he
compliments many others, including non-Christians. From “Greek
sages” to Cicero and beyond, he acknowledges that “pagan” thinkers
were able to understand the right approach to virtue. Within a few
pages, he quotes Homer, Augustine, and the Emperor Justinian in
evaluating their views.38 There is a chapter on the “virtues and vices
of the ancient Romans.”39 For our purposes, it is important that he
offers a thorough analysis of Plato’s cave allegory. Camerarius is particularly
concerned to note that this famous story from Book VII of the
Republic proves how easily people remain in “false opinion and vain
ignorance.”40
The books described here represent only a small sample of the
range of meditations published between 1603 and 1639.41 My intention
is to show that, although the tradition of spiritual mediation
persisted well into the seventeenth century, there was a great variation
among them and that post-Reformation Europe developed new
meditative modes.
When Descartes entered the Jesuit school La Flèche in 1606, at the
age of ten, his Jesuit teachers (and the professorswho had trained those
teachers) were thoroughly educated in this diverse meditative culture.
As part of his education, Descartes would have studied Jesuit classics
like Ignatius’ Spiritual Exercises and very likely the works of Teresa of
Ávila, which were extremely popular in the period. When Descartes
was composing his Meditations in the final years of the 1630s, he was
fully aware of this complicated context. It is noteworthy that the
French translation of the Meditations that appeared in 1647 had the
title Les méditations métaphysiques de René Descartes. Subsequent
French editions also gave it the title Metaphysical Meditations.42
descartes
Descartes’ Meditations was written to revolutionize seventeenthcentury
philosophy and science. Section 1 described four methodological
traditions extant in the early seventeenth century. In order to
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forge his revolution, Descartes needed to respond to each of these. Some
he used; others he transformed. It is time to consider how.
The Search for Stability: Meditation and Reorientation
We have noted the religious, political, and philosophical instability
of the early seventeenth century. Philosophers were eager to cast
aside the lies that “corrupt” the mind in order to find, in Bacon’s
words, “the vantage ground of Truth.” But as Bacon also admits
such “finding out of the Truth” requires “Difficultie, and Labour.”
In his Meditations, Descartes encourages his readers to do this
labor. The traditional spiritual meditation demanded that readers
shift attention from themselves to a greater and greater identification
with Christ. To return to the Gospel of Mark, the meditators
learn to “deny themselves and take up their cross” so that they shed
“the world” and gain “their soul” (Mark 8: 34, 36). This reorientation
of the self requires practice and a willingness to reconsider
one’s world.
As we have seen, beginning with Augustine’s Confessions and
persisting through the early seventeenth century, the main goal of
spiritual meditation is a reorientation of the self so that the exercitant
is prepared for illumination. The means to this goal is a series of
intensive meditative exercises. The assumption is that, if the meditator
becomes properly reoriented, then the chances of divine illumination
are greatly increased. As we have also seen, there are
differences in the roles and significance assigned to the meditator’s
memory, intellect, will, and imagination, but the assumption
remains that only by identifying with Christ and experiencing his
love will illumination occur.
One of the most rhetorically stunning features of Meditations on
First Philosophy is that it frames the search for metaphysical truths in
meditative terms. For his seventeenth-century readers, Descartes’ title
itself would imply three things about their task: they would have to
struggle to reorient their relation to themselves as experiencers of the
world; they should expect such reorientation to be difficult and require
rest along theway; and they could hope for illumination if they properly
applied themselves. The meditative framework for the “first philosophy”
prepares readers to be thoroughly changed. It is a brilliant way to
prepare them for a revolution.
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The Meditations as a meditation: steps in reorientation
Descartes’ Meditations both uses the meditative tradition and transforms
it in important ways. It is now time to explain how. In hermost
important work, Interior Castle, Teresa of Ávila describes one of the
main elements in spiritual illumination in terms roughly similar to
those of the Meditations. She explains that although we begin with “a
distracted idea of our own nature,” the goal is “a notably intellectual
vision, in which it is revealed to the soul how all things are seen in
God.”43 Descartes’ Meditation One creates “a distracted idea” of
one’s self, which the meditator confronts in Meditation Two. In
Meditations Three through Five, the meditator is lead to more and
more notable instances of “intellectual vision.”
It will be helpful to list the standard elements of meditative exercises
and note how Descartes used, rejected, and transformed them.
Here are the main steps in reorientation.
step 1: desire to change. The authors of spiritual meditations
begin with the assumption that readers want to find the way to truth
and enlightenment. There is no reason to read a spiritual meditation
unless one is seeking help. Descartes can assume no such thing.
Unlike his spiritual cohorts, he has to convince his readers of
the need to meditate on “first principles” and to reorient themselves
metaphysically. In the first paragraph of Meditation One, he
famously attempts to engage his readers in the need, once in life,
“to demolish everything completely and start again right from the
foundations” (AT 7: 17). Given the familiarity of his readers with the
meditative tradition, Descartes’ rhetorical strategy here is clever.
His meditator takes a step that virtually all meditations ask their
readers to make, namely, to admit their past mistakes and in that
sense reject the foundations of their past lives.44 Like the authors of
spiritual manuals, Descartes believes that all his readers need complete
reorientation. And like them, he assumes that, although his
readers might be confused in different ways and to different degrees,
they all need to “start again.”45
step 2: doubt and demons. As we have seen, many meditations
discuss the dangers of demons. In his two-part Lives of the Saints of
1583, Alonso de Villegas writes about the ease with which demons
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lead people astray. For many authors, the only way to avoid the power
of demons is to learn to meditate properly. It is clear that Descartes
intended the skeptical arguments of Meditation One to force his
readers to doubt all of their beliefs. Scholars have long debated the
strategy of the arguments and debated their cogency. But the rhetorical
subtlety of the Meditation has not been sufficiently noticed.
Given the religious and philosophical turmoil of the period and
given the common warnings about demons, his early modern readers
must have found the deceiver argument particularly poignant.
Whether they were Catholic or Protestant, they wanted to avoid
demonic power and find a secure foundation for true beliefs. When
Descartes framed the presentation of his philosophy as a meditation
and then introduced a deceiving demon, he was both forcing his
readers into the philosophical equivalent of sinfulness and signaling
to them that he was doing so. Whatever the soundness of the demondeceiver
argument, its rhetorical force must have added to its power,
especially given recent warnings of thought-controlling demons.46
Echoing the language of Alonso de Villegas and others in the tradition,
he writes: “I will suppose therefore that . . . some malicious
demon of the utmost power and cunning has employed all his energies
in order to deceive me” (AT 7: 22). For some readers, this possibility
must have sent chills up their spine. Similarly to current
religious meditations, the warning is: struggle against demons or be
doomed.
step 3: the meditating subject and the authorial voice.
In his Confessions, Augustine describes the step that must be taken
to find God:
These books [of the Platonists] served to remind me to return to my own self.
Under Your guidance I entered into the depths of my soul. . . . I entered, and
with the eye of my soul, such as it was, I saw the Light that never changes
casting its rays over the same eye of my soul, over my mind. . . . What I saw
was something quite, quite different from any light we know on earth . . . It
was above me because it was itself the Light that made me, and I was below
because I was made by it.47
Following Augustine, meditators assumed that the “changeable”
mind could only reach the “unchangeable” truths “by turning
towards the Lord, as to the light which in some fashion had reached
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it even while it had been turned away from him.” Thanks to God’s
intimate presence in the humanmind, humans can attain knowledge,
though only “through the help of God.”48 But even with divine help,
as he explains in Confessions, “the power of my soul . . . belongs to
my nature” and “I cannot grasp all that I am. The mind is not large
enough to contain itself.”49 Because the mind ismutable and finite, it
can never grasp the whole of its contents; with the help of God,
however, it can grasp some part of it.
As these passages from Confessions suggest, the author of spiritual
exercises often speaks directly to God to praise the divinity and to ask
for help. The spiritual adviser has attained illumination and so can
speak with authority. In the Confessions Augustine speaks only to
God, and so the advice he offers the reader is indirect. Instead of
telling his readers what to do, he shows them his life. But it is clear
that the authorial voice is that of someone who has experienced
illumination.
Most late medieval and early modern spiritual meditations offer
explicit advice to their readers about how to reorient themselves. In
her Interior Castle, Teresa of Ávila constantly addresses “her sisters,”
offering them directions based on her own experience. She
frets about the obscurity of these “interior matters,” admitting to
her readers that “to explain to you what I should like is very difficult
unless you have had personal experience.”50 She asks God for help
and beseeches those who are struggling along with her: “But you
must be patient, for there is no other way in which I can explain to
you some ideas I have about certain interior matters.”51 In the end, if
her readers follow her advice, they may attain illumination.52 But
there is also a constant instability in the process of spiritual development.
Teresa is clear about the precariousness of the journey to
enlightenment because its success depends entirely on God’s support.
She writes: “whenever I say that the soul seems in security,
I must be understood to imply for as long as His Majesty thus holds it
in His care and it does not offend him.” Even after years of practice,
one must “avoid committing the least offence against God.”53 Teresa
insists in My Life that the soul can never trust in itself because as
soon as it is not “afraid for itself” it exposes “itself to dangers.” It
must always be fearful.54 For Teresa and for many other meditators,
there is never real spiritual security, and so there must be constant
meditation.
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Like Teresa, Descartes’ meditator has to have an intellectual
vision. Like Augustine and the spiritual exercises inspired by his
Confessions, Descartes’ truth-seeker must begin his journey to illumination
by learning “to return to my own self.” As he writes in
Meditation Two: “But I do not yet have a sufficient understanding of
what this ‘I’ is” (AT 7: 25). But the authorial voice of theMeditations
differs significantly fromthat of spiritual meditators. Descartes’ meditator
has no idea of where the journey will lead or how the demon
deceiver will be overcome. In an Augustinian mode, Descartes shows
his reader a process of struggling toward illumination. But unlike
the speaker of the Confessions, the speaker of the Meditations is not
yet enlightened. While Descartes himself has clearly devised his
first philosophy, the meditator does not let on that there is a clear
path to illumination. At the beginning of Meditation Two, he writes:
“It feels as if I have fallen unexpectedly into a deep whirlpool which
tumbles me around so that I can neither stand on the bottom now
swim to the top . . . I will proceed in this way [continuing to doubt my
beliefs] until I recognize something certain, or, if nothing else, until
I at least recognize that there is no certainty” (AT 7: 24). To the reader,
the authorial voice seems much more humble: it begins in confusion,
turns to despair, and then moves only slowly to clarity.55 And, in the
end, it is much more optimistic: the meditative journey implies
that any human being who takes the steps described will attain illumination.
Unlike Augustine and his followers who restrict human
knowledge to a mere part of the truth, and unlike Teresa and others
who suggest that illumination does not effect stability, Descartes’
meditator is able to grasp the entirety of “first philosophy” once
and for all. Compared to the instability of religious illumination,
Descartes’ promise of certainty must have seemed appealing. And
because his meditator moves from confusion to certainty, Descartes’
readers might have felt more optimistic about their own struggle.
step 4: the arduous journey. The reorientation of the self in
spiritual exercises takes time and effort. It is no wonder that the
meditative journey is slow and arduous. Many early modern spiritual
advisers preach the development of discipline, which they often
explicate in terms of the faculties of memory, intellect, and will.
The acquisition of such discipline requires brief periods of intense
attention and must be punctuated with periods of rest. Given the
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fickleness of human attention, one has to develop the capacity to
concentrate and then practice what was learned.
Descartes’ Meditations has all these features. Concerning discipline
and rest, each of the first three Meditations constitutes a breakthrough
that leaves the meditator discombobulated and in need of
rest.56 The end of Meditation One displays an attitude common in the
discourse of spiritual exercise, namely, the fear of backsliding and
inescapable darkness: “I happily slide back into my old opinions and
dread being shaken out of them, for fear that my peaceful sleep may
be followed by hard labour when I wake, and that I shall have to toil
not in the light, but amid the inextricable darkness of the problems
I have now raised” (AT 7: 23).
Like his early modern predecessors, Descartes’ meditation also
involves the redirection of the intellect, the proper application of
memory, and the strengthening of the will. For example, Meditation
Two concludes with a standard insistence: “But since the habit of
holding on to old opinions cannot be set aside so quickly, I should like
to stop here and meditate for some time on this new knowledge I have
gained, so as to fix it more deeply in my memory” (AT 7: 34). In
Meditation Four, the meditator realizes that in order “to avoid
error,” he must remember “to withhold judgement on any occasion
when the truth of the matter is not clear” (AT 7: 62). Then, echoing a
common sentiment about the weakness of will and the human propensity
to error, he acknowledges:
Admittedly, I am aware of a certain weakness in me, in that I am unable to
keep my attention fixed on one and the same item of knowledge at all times;
but by attentive and repeated meditation I am nevertheless able to make
myself remember it as often as the need arises, and thus get into the habit of
avoiding error. (Ibid.)
I have noted that earlymodernmeditations began to highlight the role
of the intellect. In the next section, I argue that the “pure” intellectualism
of the Meditations owes more to Platonism than do standard
spiritual meditations. But it is worth noting here that, by the end of
Meditation Five, Descartes is willing to state: “if there is anything
which is evident to my intellect, then it is wholly true” (AT 7: 71).
step 5: illumination. The main point of spiritual exercises is to
be illumined. The authors who talk about illumination differ in their
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accounts, but a common assumption is that the experience involves a
full recognition of the beauty and love of God. One is taken by that
love and changed accordingly. As we have seen, Francis Bacon avers:
“no pleasure is comparable, to the standing, upon the vantage ground
of Truth.” For many early modern philosophers, whether Protestant
or Catholic, there is a close relation between truth, love, and pleasure.
Teresa describes her experience of God as “absolutely irresistible . . .
It comes, in general, as a shock, quick and sharp . . . and you see and
feel it as a cloud, or a strong eagle rising upwards, and carrying you
away on its wings.”57 We will discuss the illumination that occurs in
the Meditations in the next section. For now, the relevant point is
that although Descartes appropriates much of the language and
imagery of Christian spirituality, he has dropped all talk of divine
love. He mentions the beauty of God at the end of Meditation Three,
but it does not function as a motivating force or even an attraction.
Descartes’ account of illumination differs significantly from the tradition
in that it is virtually devoid of affect.
But it is also easier to attain than the tradition allowed. Although
Descartes recognizes that the path to illumination will not always be
easy, he is committed to the view that proper meditation will lead to
insight. In Second Replies, he acknowledges that for those who have
“opinions which are obscure and false, albeit fixed in the mind by
long habit,” it may be hard to become accustomed “to believing in
the primary notions.” But he insists:
Those who give the matter their careful attention and spend time meditating
with me will clearly see that there is within us an idea of a supremely
powerful and perfect being . . . I cannot force this truth on my readers if they
are lazy, since it depends solely on their exercising their powers of thought.
(AT 7: 135–36)
In the end, however, those who are not lazy and who practice will be
properly illumined.
Transforming Platonism
Section 1 listed the three main sources of Platonism in early modern
thought: scholasticism, Augustinianism, and the Plotinian Platonism
promulgated by Ficino. Although there is no reason to believe
that Descartes ever made any thing like a thorough study of Plato’s
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philosophy, his education would have given him a familiarity
with Platonist ideas from these three sources. A Jesuit secondary
school education in the seventeenth century retained a pedagogy
structured around scholastic textbooks, with special attention paid
to the thought of Aquinas. Scholars have long noted the Platonist
ideas in the writings of Aquinas, whose popularity had increased
in the Counter-Reformation. He became a pillar of the new Jesuit
order after its formation in 1540 and was declared a “Doctor of the
Universal Church” by Pope Pius V in 1567.58 Descartes’ Jesuit education
also contained huge amounts of Augustinianism. As we
have seen, the medieval tradition of spiritual meditation grew out
of Augustine whose ideas inspired early modern Reformers and
Catholics alike.59 Concerning the Platonism promulgated by Ficino
and other humanists, it is unlikely that Descartes’ secondary education
required a study of Plato’s works, but his teachers were familiar
with Platonism, and their textbooks would have included Platonist
ideas.60
Given the ubiquity of Platonism in early modern Europe, it is not
surprising that Descartes appropriates Platonist ideas. Some of these
bear a close resemblance to Augustinian sources; others suggest non-
Augustinian Platonist roots. For example, elements in the epistemological
journey described in Meditations Two, Three, and Five bear a
striking similarity to Plato’s cave allegory. In Book VII of the
Republic, when the truth-seeker escapes his chains and turns from
the shadows, he looks with difficulty at the fire in the cave. Once he
accustoms himself to the fire’s illumination, he moves with difficulty
to the entrance of the cave, where he is nearly blinded by the sun’s
brightness. He slowly becomes accustomed to that light until he is
able to gaze upon the sun and see the realities it so beautifully
illuminates. In Plato’s words, once the truth-seeker “is able to
see . . . the sun itself,” he can “infer and conclude that the sun . . .
governs everything in the visible world, and is . . . the cause of all the
things that he sees” (516b). In The Republic, the epistemological
moral is that the truth-seeker is able to grasp the Good itself and see
how it is “the cause” of everything else.61
What makes the Meditations so clever is that it uses all of these
traditions to suit Descartes’ particular needs. On the one hand, as we
have seen, he explicitly models his work on Christian spiritual meditations.
On the other, he replaces an essential feature of those
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exercises with exercises that are devoted to “the pure deliverances of
the intellect.”62 As we have noted, Augustinian notions of sin make
divine intervention a requisite for illumination. Descartes ignores the
standard Christian need for intervention and relies instead on a purer
form of Platonist intellectualism, according to which the intellect
needs no such help. Similar to Augustine and the Augustinian spiritual
tradition, Descartes’ journey begins with a turning “inward.” But
unlike that tradition, his meditator is able to escape the shadowworld
without the aid of any divine or human source.
The narrative arc that begins with the first paragraphs of
Meditation Two and ends with the conclusion of Meditation Three
roughly parallels the steps that Plato’s cave-dweller takes: it begins
with disorientation and confusion, moves to a first glimpse into the
nature of things (the nature of mind and body), followed by the
dramatic moment when the ultimate reality is apprehended. Plato’s
truth-seeker sees the light of the sun at the edge of the cave;
Descartes’ has his first glimpse of God. Neither needs divine help.
At the end of Meditation Three, Descartes neatly combines elements
drawn from religious meditations with those of the Platonist
tradition to create a dramatic epistemological shift. Although the
argument for the existence of God occupies much of Meditation
Three, its conclusion strongly suggests that one of the main points
of this part of the meditative exercise is to reorient the intellect so as
to recognize its cognitive range and it relation to God: “I perceive . . .
the idea of God, by the same faculty which enables me to perceive
myself” (AT 7: 51). Although Descartes emphasizes the importance
of having turned his “mind’s eye” upon itself, the result is illumination.
The meditator perceives God. As a conclusion to Meditation
Three, he writes that, before “examining” this idea of God “more
carefully and investigating other truths which may be derived from it,
I would like to pause here and spend some time in contemplation of
God; . . . and to gaze with wonder and adoration on the beauty of this
immense light, so far as the eye of my darkened intellect can bear it”
(AT 7: 52).
The first paragraph of Meditation Four summarizes the lessons
drawn from the meditative enterprise: “During these past few days
I have accustomed myself to leadingmy mind away from the senses”
and recognized that “very little about corporeal things . . . is truly
perceived, whereas much more is known about the human mind, and
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still more about God” (AT 7: 52–53). As a consequence of this meditative
exercise, “I now have no difficulty in turning my mind . . .
towards things which are the objects of the intellect alone.”
Descartes is perfectly clear that it is “the human intellect” by itself
that knows these things. Looking forward toward the next phase of
meditation, he writes: “And now, from this contemplation of the true
God, in whom all treasures of wisdom and the sciences lie hidden,
I think I can see a way forward to the knowledge of other things” (AT
7: 52–53).
For seventeenth-century readers of the Meditations, this was
surely a dramatic moment. Descartes’ meditator had reached the
point of reorientation: he has escaped the shadows of doubt to attain
illumination, accomplished by his own intellectual endeavors. The
lesson is clear: the human intellect is able to make the arduous trek to
illumination entirely on its own. Descartes’ readers would have been
fully aware of the difference between this journey to illumination and
the Augustinian one. And many readers would be familiar with the
story of the cave, if not the details of Plato’s Republic.63 It seems
likely that Descartes is here cleverly engaging with these Platonist
traditions to suit his needs. By elegantly interweaving different
Platonist strands he creates something both old and revolutionary.
Reorientation and New Philosophy
The revolution that Descartes hoped to effect was primarily a scientific
one. Scholars have persuasively argued that his main concern
was to furnish the world with a science that would replace
Aristotelianism and explain “the whole of corporeal nature.”64
Descartes believes that the “establishment” of his new philosophy
would render the Aristotelian system “so absolutely and so clearly
destroyed . . . that no other refutation is needed” (“To Mersenne,
22 December 1641,” AT 3: 470). As I have noted, when he claimed
his system would replace Aristotle, he joined a chorus of early modern
voices announcing that a philosophical revolution was at hand.
But unlike most others, by the mid-seventeenth century, Descartes’
proposals had become one of the “new philosophies” that had to be
taken seriously.
The similarities between the “pure intellectualism” of Galileo in
The Assayer and that of Descartes are obvious. For both natural
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philosophers, the mind turns itself upon its concepts, reflects on
them, and discovers the truths therein contained. Also, like Galileo,
Descartes believes that if the mind does not attend to its concepts in
the right way, it will remain in a world of its own prejudices. But
Descartes goes well beyond Galileo in offering a first philosophy that
will ground his physics and doing so in a way that gradually prepares
his readers for a revolution. After the illuminations of Meditation
Five, Descartes concludes that meditative exercise by summarizing
what he has learned and preparing his readers for the science of nature
that will come:
Thus I see plainly that the certainty and truth of all knowledge depends
uniquely on my awareness of the true God, to such an extent that I was
incapable of perfect knowledge about anything else until I became aware of
him. And now it is possible for me to achieve full and certain knowledge of
countless matters, both concerning God himself and other things whose
nature is intellectual, and also concerning the whole of that corporeal nature
which is the subject-matter of pure mathematics. (AT 7: 71)
The success of Descartes’ proposals in natural philosophy is surely
due to their innovation and explanatory power. But we should not let
their success hide the power of the Meditations’ rhetorical arc. While
it is impossible to gauge the exact contribution that its meditative
rhetoric made to its philosophical success, the methodology of reorientation
must have cushioned the blow of its proposals. In grounding
his account of nature in first principles discoverable through a
reorientation of the mind, Descartes was preparing his readers to
accept radical change.
conclus ion
The goal of this chapter is to contextualize the methodology of
Descartes’ Meditations in order to reveal the subtlety of its rhetorical
strategy. Historians have long noted the work’s brilliance and originality.
The same has not been true of the richness and finesse of its
method. I have tried to show some of the complicated ways in which
Descartes uses, ignores, and transforms traditional philosophical and
religious elements to create a work of astonishing subtlety. He negotiated
a complex philosophical landscape to set a path that would
surprise, illumine, and change his contemporaries. The Meditations
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is much more than a series of arguments. It is an attempt to reorient
the minds of its readers and ultimately to forge a revolution.65
note s
1. On the relation between Descartes’ first philosophy and concern to argue
for his natural philosophy or physics, see especially Hatfield 2003 and
Garber 1992.
2. For example, Menn 1998, chapters three and four; Broughton 2002;
Curley 1978; Garber 1986; and Schmaltz 1991, Popkin 1979, chapters
nine and ten; Hatfield 1985 and 1986.
3. For some of these, see Cunning 2010, chapter 10.
4. Bacon 2000, 7–8.
5. Mercer, 2000, 2002; Kraye and Stone 2000.
6. In this letter, Descartes describes his reaction to the Seventh Set of
Objections, written by Pierre Bourdin. The letter is to Bourdin’s superior,
Father Dinet, who had taught Descartes at La Flèche. (See CSM 2: 64–65.)
Descartes is clear that he was very concerned that this one man’s views
did not represent “the balanced and careful assessment that your entire
Society had formed of my views” (AT 7: 564).
7. It is an awkward truth about prominent Platonists that they put forward
elaborate theories that are sometimes only remotely connected to the
texts of the Athenian philosopher himself. On the heterogeneity of early
modern Platonism, see Kristeller 1979 and Mercer 2002. On the question
of what Platonism is, see Gerson 2005.
8. As the Renaissance historians Copenhaver and Schmitt 1992 have written:
“Given the quantity of Platonic material transmitted” through
Arabic authorities “or generally in the air in medieval universities, it is
not surprising that parts of Thomist metaphysics owe more to
Augustine, Proclus, or Plotinus than to Aristotle” (133).
9. Augustine himself acknowledges his Platonist sources, noting the special
importance of the thought of Plotinus. See, e.g., Augustine’s
Confessions, VII. 10 (16).
10. For the importance of Augustinianism in seventeenth-century France
and for other examples of major figures proclaiming the importance of
the “divine Augustine,” see Menn 1998, esp. 21–25.
11. Twenty-first century scholars are often surprised to discover that, despite
the importance of Platonism in medieval Europe, very few of Plato’s texts
were available. Only the Timaeus was widely available. Dialogues as
important as the Republic and Symposium had been lost and had to be
“rediscovered” in the Renaissance. OnDescartes’ relation to the Timaeus,
seeWilson 2008.
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12. Formore on this history, see Copenhaver and Schmitt 1992, esp. chapters 1
and 3.
13. Much has been written about Ficino, his thought and influence. A fine
place to begin an exploration of these topics is Allen 2002 and Garfagnini
1986.
14. The Assayer, in Drake 1957, 237–38.
15. There has been important recent work done on the “emergence” of
science. For an overview and reference to other works, see Gaukroger
2006. It is noteworthy that few of these studies discuss the role of
Platonism in the period.
16. The standard treatment of the relation between Descartes and Augustine
is Rodis-Lewis 1954. Also see Janowski 2000, and esp. Menn 1998.
17. Cotgrave 1611.
18. For an interesting comparison between ancient and early Christian
notions of self, see Barnes 2009. For an important study of religious
meditations, see Stock 2011.
19. All Biblical quotations are from the New Revised Standard Version.
Mark 8: 34.
20. Augustine, Confessions, VII.20.26–27. Also see XIV.15.21.
21. Bennett 1982, 32.
22. McNamer 2010, 1–9. Since Bynum 1987, scholars have increasingly
discussed the gendered aspect of such meditations. For a summary, see
McNamer 2010, 3–9.
23. Leone 2010, 1.
24. Alonso de Villegas published his The Lives of Saints in 1583. On Alonso
de Villegas and the role of saints in the Counter-Reformation, see Leone
2010, 4 and passim.
25. Teresa of Ávila’s fame has hardly decreased. For the importance of her
writings to modern Spanish literature, see Du Pont 2012.
26. I agree with Rubidge that “Descartes’s Meditations do not resemble
Loyola’s Spiritual Exercises more than other devotional manuals” (28),
though I think the similarities between Descartes’ work and other early
meditations are more philosophically significant than Rubidge suggests.
For a helpful account of those manuals, the role in them of memory,
intellect, and will, and references to earlier studies, see Rubidge 1990.
27. Bernard of Clairvaux 1614, A 3r.
28. Ibid., 33.
29. Ibid, 2v.
30. Ibid, 136–37.
31. De Alcántara 1624, 2v–3r.
32. Scribani 1616, 582.
33. Ibid, 565.
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34. Ibid, 2v–4r. Scribani also published a more standard meditations. See
Scribani 1616.
35. De la Puente 1636, 3–5.
36. Camerarius 1603, 2–3.
37. Ibid, 334.
38. Ibid, 3–5.
39. Ibid, 183.
40. Ibid, 167.
41. Catholics wrote the majority of early modern meditations. But
Protestants also took up the meditative banner. For example, a famous
Lutheran theologian, Johann Gerhard (1582–1637), published a Latin
work that went through several editions and was translated into
English and German. For the English version, see Winterton 1627.
42. The first French translation is: Les méditations métaphysiques de René
Descartes. Traduites du Latin par M. le D.D.L.N.S. [i.e. Louis Charles
D’Albert de Luynes]. Et les objetions faites contre ces Meditations . . .
avec les réponses de l’Auteur. Traduites par Mr. C.L.R. [i.e. Claude
Clerselier] (Paris: Camusat), 1647.
43. Teresa, 1921, 6
th mansion, chapter 10. For a major Latin edition of her
works, which were originally in Spanish, see Teresa de Jesús 1626.
44. On the similarity between some of the steps in spiritual exercises and
those in the Meditations and on their goal of illumination, see Hatfield
1986, esp. 47–54. But the historical context is more complicated that he
suggests. Also see Rorty 1983.
45. Scholars have interpreted the rhetoric and skepticism of Meditation One
in different ways. See for example Wilson 2003 and Broughton 2002.
Cunning is very helpful in introducing the notion of the “unemended
intellect” and emphasizing the fact that Descartes’ strategy here is to
offer a means for any sort of reader (whether Aristotelian, mechanist,
atheist, or theist) to follow the method and discover the truths. See
Cunning 2010, esp. 7, 28–33, 103.
46. See Cunning 2010 and reference to other sources, 62–63, esp. 1 40.
47. Confessions VIII.10.
48. Ibid., XIV.15 (21).
49. Ibid., X.8 (15).
50. Teresa, 1921, Mansion 1, chapter 2.
51. Ibid., Mansion 1, chapter 1.
52. Ibid., Mansion 6, chapter 10.
53. Ibid., Mansion 7, chapter 2, section 13.
54. Teresa, 1904, chapter XIX, section 22.
55. See also Curley 1986, 153–57; Hatfield 1986, 69–72; and Cunning 2010,
37–43, 217–30.
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56. In a famous letter to Elisabeth of June 28, 1643, Descartes writes that one
should spend “very few hours a year on those [activities] that occupy the
intellect alone” (AT 3: 692–93).
57. Teresa, 1904, chapter X, section 3.
58. For a summary of the range of Aristotelianisms in the early modern
period, the place of Aquinas in the Counter-Reformation, and citations
to other studies, see Stone 2002.
59. Scholars have often noted the striking similarities between Descartes’
ideas and those of Augustine. The latter is also concerned with proving
that the self exists in the face of skeptical arguments. His response is
summed up in the statement “Si fallor, sum,” which is recognized to be
the distant antecedent of Descartes’ defense of the same idea. For more
on Descartes’ relation to Augustine, see Menn 1998. But despite striking
similarities between some of Augustine’s views and those of Descartes, it
is doubtful that Descartes knew Augustine’s texts very well. He denies
direct knowledge of those works and I see no reason not to take him at his
word. The similarities between his ideas and Augustine’s are easily
explained by the ubiquity of Augustinian ideas in the period. For a recent
scholar who does not take Descartes at his word, see Brachtendorf 2012.
60. Robert Black has shown that in late medieval and Renaissance secondary
schools, students learned about Plato’s cave allegory. Students also
learned, in Black’s words, the “basic doctrines of the ancient philosophical
schools,” including Plato, who was called “semi-divine and
preferred by the gods themselves” (Black 2001, 305–07).
61. For a brief discussion of the similarities between Descartes’ Meditations
and Plato’s cave allegory, see Mercer 2002, 37–39. Buckle 2007 argues for
a similar point, but seems unaware of the variety of Platonisms available
to Descartes.
62. This is language from Hatfield 1986, 47. I agree with Hatfield’s basic
point that the Meditations attempts to “evoke the appropriate cognitive
experiences in the meditator.”
63. See Black 2001, 305–07.
64. AT7:71. See also Garber 1986, 83–91.
65. I would very much like to thank David Cunning for asking me to write up
my ideas about methodological matters as they apply to the Meditations
and then offering feedback along the way. A conversation with Gideon
Manning was also very helpful. I would like to thank the Herzog August
Bibliothek for offering me a Senior Fellowship so that I could use their
wonderful library while researching early modern meditations.
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What advice would you give to Alba and Gavigan to help them make more profit in the long term?

Week 5 – Assignment
Price Quotes and Pricing Decisions Applied Problems
Please complete the following two applied problems:
Problem 1:
Jessica Alba, a famous actress, starts the baby and family products business, The Honest Company,
with Christopher Gavigan. Alba and Gavigan set up their site so families can choose what kinds of nontoxic,
all-natural products they’d like to use and get them in a bundle. Families can choose all kinds of
products from food to hygiene necessities and cleaning supplies. Suppose they are thinking of
expanding their business into five domestic markets: Phoenix, Dallas, Chicago, New York, and Atlanta.
Assume their primary goal of business is to maximize economic profits, although they want to do
business honestly.
Show all your calculations and process. Describe your answer for each question in three- to fivecomplete
sentences.
a. You are a business adviser for Alba and Gavigan. Describe a skimming price and a penetration
price, and advise them whether they should charge a skimming price or a penetration price, with
supportive reasoning for and against each pricing alternative.
b. Are they likely to make economic profits initially? Can they continue to make economic profits in the
long term? Why or why not? Discuss.
c. What advice would you give to Alba and Gavigan to help them make more profit in the long term?
Problem 2:
You operate your own small building company and have decided to bid on a government contract to
build a pedestrian walkway in a national park during the coming winter. The walkway is to be of
standard government design and should involve no unexpected costs. Your present capacity utilization
rate is moderate and allows sufficient scope to understand this contract, if you win it. You calculate your
incremental costs to be $268,000 and your fully allocated costs to be $440,000. Your usual practice is
to add between 60% and 80% to your incremental costs, depending on capacity utilization rate and
other factors. You expect three other firms to also bid on this contract, and you have assembled the
following competitor intelligence about those companies.
Issue Rival A Rival B Rival C
Capacity
Utilization
At full
capacity
Moderate Very low
Week 5 – Assignment https://ashford.instructure.com/courses/56380/assignments/112…
1 of 4 12/16/19, 6:23 PM
Goodwill
Considerations
Very
concerned
Moderately
concerned
Not
concerned
Production
Facilities
Small and
inefficient
plant
Medium
sized and
efficient
plant
Large and
very
efficient
plant
Previous
Bidding
Pattern
Incremental
cost plus
35-50%
Full cost
plus 8-12%
Full cost
plus
10-15%
Cost Structure
Incremental
costs
exceed
yours by
about 10%
Similar cost
structure to
yours
Incremental
costs 20%
lower but
full costs
are similar
to yours
Aesthetic
Factors
Does not
like winter
jobs or dirty
jobs
Does not
like messy
or
inconvenient
jobs
Likes
projects
where it
can show
its creativity
Political
Factors
Decision
maker is a
relative of
the buyer
Decision
maker is
seeking a
new job
Decision
maker is
looking for
a
promotion
Show all of your calculations and processes. Describe your answers in three- to five-complete
sentences.
a. What price would you bid if you must win the project?
b. What price would you bid if you want to maximize the expected value of the contribution from this
contract?
c. Defend your answers with discussion, making any assumptions you feel are reasonable and/or are
supported by the information provided.
Carefully review the Grading Rubric (http://ashford.waypointoutcomes.com/assessment/3740/preview)
for the criteria that will be used to evaluate your assignment.
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Week 5 – Assignment https://ashford.instructure.com/courses/56380/assignments/112…
3 of 4 12/16/19, 6:23 PM
Week 5 – Assignment https://ashford.instructure.com/courses/56380/assignments/112…
4 of 4 12/16/19, 6:23 PM

Discuss ways other people affected you and the ways you affected others in the social experiences of your day.

(Please include wife and daughter within the paper)
The paper should be 4-6 typed pages, 12-point font, with 1″ margins. Remember to use APA format to cite and reference your sources.

A presentation that offers additional assistance in completing the assignment is available at https://prezi.com/view/DTakPcZ9NlkobNn93EMi/

Instructions

1) Observation

Create a field log (example). For one day, observe and record the key interactions and institutions in your lived experience. Starting with waking up, who is the first person you talk to? What do you do next- take family members to school, go to the gym, go to work and interact with coworkers? Throughout the day you will take on different roles by interacting with different people and in different situations, and be in contact with different social institutions (education, government, health, etc). Type or photograph your field log and submit it with your written Assignment.

2) Application

Try to wait one or more days before starting this step. Revisit your field log and apply sociological analysis to your observations.

Describe how our day is shaped and constrained by social norms.
Analyze how at least four sociological concepts learned in class (eg. roles, institutions, interactions, impression management, stage theory, emotional labor) apply to your field log observations. This part of the paper should not be focused on the general social norms you described earlier, dig in with specific concepts in this from our text (refrain from using dictionaries).
For at least two of the concepts, find and incorporate an appropriate source that highlights how sociologists study this concept in everyday society (for example, emotional labor in the restaurant industry). Not sure what constitutes an appropriate source? See our Announcement on this in the classroom- tips and a learning module are provided there. For example, we discussed gender socialization:
In an article by Crespi (2011) that studied gender socialization and gender roles within the family, results showed that a cross-gender relationship between fathers and daughters, mothers and sons has emerged as significant in determining traditional and non-traditional gender attitudes. The research suggested that the relationship with the parent of the opposite sex could be a strong factor in reducing stereotyped attitudes regarding gender roles (Crespi, 2011). *Use a different example in your paper, the purpose here is to show your research skills rather than repeat my research skills.*
3) Reflection
Reflect on your role as a larger part of society (i.e. your motives, instincts, feelings, and/or structural constraints). Discuss ways other people affected you and the ways you affected others in the social experiences of your day.